Topic 1 - Theories of religion

Who argues the substantive definition and what do they argue

• Weber

• Defines it as a belief in the supernatural power above that cannot be explained scientifically

• To be a religion it has to included belief in God or the supernatural

Evaluation of the substantive definition

• Western centric

• Western bias as they exclude religions such as Buddhism which do not have a western idea of god

Who argues the functional definition of religion and what do they argue

• Durkheim and Yinger

• Durkheim - defines it in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration rather than specific belief in god or the supernatural

• Yinger - defines it as the function it performs for individuals to answer the ‘ultimate question’ about the meaning of life and what happens after we die

Evaluation to functional definition

• Just because an institution is religious doesn’t mean it is a religion, e.g. football chanting at a football match gives individuals sense of integration

What is the constructionist definition and who argues it

• Aldridge

• Social constructionist take an interpretivist view focus on how members themselves define religion

• No possible single universal definition

• Aldridge - for its followers Scientology is a religion whereas many governments denied it legal status

• It is influenced by who has power to define the situation

Evaluation of the constructionist definition

• Impossible to generalise the nature of religion as people have widely different views on the definition.

What does Durkheim mean by Sacred and Profane

• Sacred - things that are set apart from others, often unite people with shared worship.

• Profane - ordinary, everyday things that are mundane and have no special significance

How does the sacred and profane maintain unity

• The shared rituals around the sacred objects creates a sense of social unity

• E.g. a flag may be a piece of cloth but in a national ceremony it becomes sacred a symbol of shared unity

What is a totem

• something that represents a clan or tribe

What tribe did Durkheim study (totemism)

• Arunta, an Aboriginal Australian tribe

What did Durkheim conclude around totemism

• Collective worship of the sacred totem helps reinforce the groups solidarity and sense of belonging

What does Durkheim mean when he argues collective conscience in religion

• Shared norms and values, without these society will disintegrate

How do rituals reinforce collective conscience

• Shared rituals bind individuals together making them part of a single community

• This can strengthen individuals to overcome obsticles that would otherwise defeat individuals

How does religion perform a cognitive function

• Origin of concepts we need for reasoning and understanding the world

• Origin of human thought and science

Evaluation to totemism + sociologist

• Worsley

• No distinct difference between sacred and profane

• Different clans can share the same totem

• Durkheim assumes consensus, ignores that sects could potentially cause conflict within each other

Other evaluation to Durkheim + postmodernist sociologist

• Only applicable to small scale societies, not to large scale

• Mestrovic - argues increasing diversity has fragmented collective consciousness and there is no longer a shared value system to enforce

Who argues that religion performs a psychological function

• Malinowski

How does religion perform a psychological function

• Helping them cope with emotional stress that may lead to undermining social solidarity

What two types of situations does religion perform this function

• When the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and uncertain

• At a time of life crisis

How does religion perform psychological functions when the outcome is important but uncertain (Study)

• Western pacific Trobriand Islanders

• Lagoon fishing, safe and predictable so there is no ritual

• Ocean fishing, is dangerous and uncertain, ‘canoe magic’ is performed which is a ritual. This helps to ease the tension and reinforces group solidarity

How does religion perform psychological functions at a time of life crisis

• Birth, death, marriage

• Malinowski argues that death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief

• Gives comfort to individuals knowing their loved ones are in heaven/ afterlife

Who argues that religion performs the function of meanings and values

• Parsons

How does Parsons suggest that religion creates values and meaning

• Creates and legitimates societies central values

• It is the primary source of meaning

How does religion legitimates societies core values

• Legitimates norms and values by sacralising them, e.g. American core values of individualism and meritocracy

How does religion provide a source of meaning

• Provides answers to questions

• E.g. explains suffering as a test of faith and allows it maintain stability

Who argues Civil Religion

• Bellah

What is civil religion

• The ‘American way of life’

• How religion unites a multi faith society

How does religion unite a multifaith society

• Loyalty to a nation state and belief in God

• E.g. pledge allegiance to the flag ‘one nation under God ’

What are functional alternatives

• Bellah - you do not have to have a belief in God

Evaluation of Functionalism

• Neglects negative aspects of religion such as the source of oppression of the poor or women

• Ignores religion as a source of division or conflict between groups, e.g. Northern Ireland

• Civil religion - is it a religion if it is not based on the belief of the supernatural

Who believes religion as an ideology + explain

• Karl Marx

• Ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the suffering of the poor as something inevitable

• Creates a false class consciousness as seeing everyone as equal under the eyes of god, distorts view to prevent change

Who describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ + explain

• Lenin

• Describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ that is used to intoxicate the masses by the ruling class to confused WC and keep them in their place

• Prevents a revolution by creating a ‘mystical fog’ to obscure reality which makes position in society seem divinely ordained

Who argues that religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain + explain

• Karl Marx

• Argues that workers are alienated as they have not control over factors of production

• Religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation, masks the underlying problem

Evaluation of the Marxist view of education

• Ignores positive functions of crime

• Neo-Marxists see some forms of religion as assisting development of class consciousness

• Abercrombie, Hill and Turner - pre-capitalist society, Christianity was major ruling class ideology but only had a limited impact on peasantry

How is patriarchy evident in religion

Evident in:

• Religious organisations

• Places of worship

• Sacred text

• Religious laws and customs

Who argued exclusion from priesthood was a form of women’s marginalisation

• Armstrong

Who argued that some religion placed women at the center and what did they mean by this

• Armstrong

• Fertility cults and female priesthoods found in the Middle East around 6000 years ago

• However now their is an established all-powerful male God in religion

Who argues that the result of a patriarchal society has caused religion to oppress women

• El Saadawi

• It is not a direct cause of subordination but due to patriarchal forms of society coming to existence which has influence religion

Who argues that their are religious forms of feminism

• Woodhead

• Criticises feminism for equating religion with patriarchy

• Uses the example of hijabs worn by many Muslim women, to the wearer it may mean liberation

Who argued why some young British women wear the hijab and what did they mean

• Gilliat-Ray

• Some young British women wear the hijab to gain parental approval for higher education, to enter the public sphere without being deemed as immodest

Who argued Pentecostal groups can be empowering for women, what did they mean by this

• Brusco

• Women are able to use religion to increase influence

• An example of this is a strong belief in Pentecostalism is that men should respect women

• This may lead to practicing what they preach and refrain from ‘macho behaviour’

What is a piety movement

• focuses on self devotion

Who argues that piety movements

• Argues that religion and feminism do not oppose

• They can be used to further own interest e.g. participation can lead to leadership roles in the organisation

• Only for MC white women

When was the first female priest in the Church of England

• Since 1994