AQA A-Level English Language Paper 2

AO1 (Questions 1 & 2 — 33%, Question 3 — 25%, Question 4 — 0%)

Students will apply linguistic methods and terminology, identifying patterns and complexities, apply different levels of language analysis in an integrated way, recognising how they are connected, apply levels of language analysis with rare errors, guide the reader.

AO2 (Questions 1 & 2 — 66%, Question 3 — 0%, Question 4 — 66%)

Students will demonstrate a synthesised, conceptualised and individual overview of issues, evaluate and challenge views, approaches and interpretations of linguistic issues.

AO3 (Questions 1 & 2 — 0%, Question 3 — 37.5%, Question 4 — 0%)

Students will evaluate use of language and representations according to context, explore analysis within wider social and cultural contexts.

AO4 (Questions 1 & 2 — 0%, Question 3 — 37.5%, Question 4 — 0%)

Students will evaluate the importance / significance / effect of connections found across texts.

AO5 (Questions 1 & 2 — 0%, Question 3 — 0%, Question 4 — 33%)

Students will use form creatively and innovatively, use register creatively for context, write accurately.

AC Gimson’s Disadvantages of RP

Using RP could be disadvantageous in some conversations where empathy and affection are needed due to preconceptions that RP is a cold, serious accent — unlike regional varieties that are warm and loving.

Aitchson's Metaphors

Suggested that prescriptivists usually allude to language change with one of three metaphors: damp spoon, crumbling castle, or infectious disease.

Aitchson’s Metaphors : Damp Spoon Metaphor

Language changes through laziness — like sugar becoming lumpy after using a wet spoon to get some from the packet.

Aitchson’s Metaphors : Crumbling Castle Metaphor

Language changes with time — but older versions have more prestige and must be preserved and maintained instead of degraded and changed.

Aitchson’s Metaphors : Infectious Disease Metaphor

Language changes with exposure — newer language corrupts and kills old language.

Aitchson's Stages of Language Change

Suggests that there are four stages a word needs to progress through to properly integrate into a language: potential stage, implementation stage, diffusion stage, and codification stage.

Aitchson’s Stages of Language Change : Potential Stage Definition

The first stage : A need for a new word arises due to something new in the world.

Aitchson’s Stages of Language Change : Implementation Stage Definition

The second stage : A few people start to incorporate the new word into their idiolects.

Aitchson’s Stages of Language Change : Diffusion Stage

The third stage : The word spreads and is used more widely.

Aitchson’s Stages of Language Change : Codification Stage

The fourth stage : The new word enters the dictionary and is used as a standard for language.

Bailey’s Earthquake Metaphor

Language change is affected by geographical distance — like an earthquake, a change in language is less effective the further it extends from the epicentre.

Beattie’s Interruptions

Interruptions do not always reflect dominance — support can be shown through back-channelling.

Bernstein's Codes

Focuses on how language is used, rather than what language is used (though, certain dialects may be associated with one code more than the other).

Bernstein’s Codes : Elaborate Code Definition

Arises when there is a gap or boundary between the speaker and listener which can only be crossed by explicit speech. It is typically used to communicate facts and abstract ideas. Has a more formally correct syntax.

Bernstein’s Codes : Restricted Code Definition

Arises when speech is exchanged against a background of shared experience and shared definitions of that experience. It is typically used to convey feelings and attitudes. Has a looser syntax and more implicit references.

Bucholtz’s Super Standard English

Some white students (who characterised themselves as ‘nerds’) use a variety of English that is considered to be hypercorrect, exaggeratedly formal, and often reflects an overt and conscious effort to adhere to perceived standards of correctness and sophistication in language use.

Burchfield’s Intelligibility

Suggests that British and American varieties of English will soon no longer be mutually intelligible.

Butler’s Gender Performativity

“We act and walk and speak and talk in ways that consolidate an impression of being a man or being a woman”

Cameron’s Diversity Approach

Gender is something you do, not something you are — if you are performing as feminine, you’ll use traditionally female language features, even if you are not female.

Cameron’s Verbal Hygiene

Like many other aspects of life, women are expected to adhere to a ‘proper’ way of talking due to their gender alone. This is only reinforced by older gender theories that depict women’s language as stagnant and universal.

Chen's S-Curve Model

Change starts in a limited way before getting faster as more users adopt the change. Language changes when people are willing to welcome new forms.

Cheshire's Reading Study

A study to gain data about the relationship between between use of grammatical variables and adherence to peer group culture by boys and girls in Reading. Girls who approved of minor crimes were more likely to use non-standard language than those who didn't.

Coates’ Female Sensitivity

Women have a sensitivity to other people, and use mitigative hedges to demonstrate respect.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk

The spoken discourse of classrooms can be described by a “initiation-response-feedback” (IRF) sequence undertaken by the teacher to reenforce power relationships.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk : Teacher Inform Definition

Used by the teacher to convey information to the pupils, using the initiation part of the IRF structure.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk : Teacher Direct Definition

Used by the teacher to direct a non-verbal response from the pupils, using the initiation and response parts of the IRF structure.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk : Teacher Elicit Definition

Used by the teacher to elicit a verbal response from a pupil, using the initiation, response, and feedback parts of the IRF structure.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk : Check Definition

Used by the teacher to discover how well students are responding to a task and to identify problems, using the initiation and response parts of the IRF structure.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk : Pupil Elicit Definition

Used by the pupil to elicit a verbal response from the teacher, using the initiation and response parts of the IRF structure.

Coulthard & Sinclair’s Teacher Talk : Pupil Inform Definition

Used by the pupil to convey information to the teacher, using the initiation and feedback parts of the IRF structure.

Crystal’s Global Status

“A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognised in every country”

Crystal's Tide Metaphor

Language is like a tide; it takes a while for complete change. With each 'tide', some words stay, whilst others fall out of use.

Crystal’s Tridialectalism

British speakers of English will become tridialectal, speaking a regional variety for their region, standard English around the UK, and a global English in foreign contexts.

Cultural Transmission Theory

Language is passed on from generations through socialisation (cultural learning). Language changes when individuals/groups feel a benefit in change (for status or belonging).

Dent’s Birthmarks

Accents are like spoken birthmarks — an inherent marking of identity.

Deutscher's The Unfolding of Language

Language changes to adhere to three basic principles : economy, expressiveness, and analogy.

Deutscher's The Unfolding of Language : Economy Definition

The tendency to save effort in language, leading to 'short-cuts' in pronunciation and writing.

Deutscher's The Unfolding of Language : Expressiveness Definition

The desire to achieve greater effect through an utterance, leading to hyperbole.

Deutscher's The Unfolding of Language : Analogy Definition

The craving for order, the instinctive need to find regularity in language, leading to regularising irregularities in language.

Dixon, Mahoney, & Cocks' Police Study

119 participants listened to an exchange between a British male criminal suspect and a British male policeman. The results suggested that the suspect was rated significantly more guilty when he employed a Birmingham accent rather than an RP accent and attributions of guilt were associated with the suspect's perceived superiority and social attractiveness.

Drew & Heritage's Institutional Talk

Communication in the workplace is more structured than everyday conversation, with language and prosodic features being used to demonstrate responsibility and power.

Drew & Heritage’s Institutional Talk : Goal Orientation Definition

Participants in workplace conversations usually focus on specific tasks or goals.

Drew & Heritage’s Institutional Talk : Turn Taking Definition

In some professional contexts (such as a courtroom), there are explicit turn taking rules imposed upon the conversational floor. In other professional contexts, however, these turn taking rules are implicit.

Drew & Heritage’s Institutional Talk : Allowable Contributions Definition

There may be restrictions on what kinds of contributions are considered ‘allowable’.

Drew & Heritage’s Institutional Talk : Professional Lexis Definition

Context may be reflected in lexical choice, as speakers may chose jargon over higher-frequency lexis.

Drew & Heritage’s Institutional Talk : Structure Definition

Workplace interactions may be structured in specific ways. (Link to Coulthard & Sinclair’s IRF structure).

Drew & Heritage’s Institutional Talk : Asymmetry Definition

Workplace interactions are often asymmetrical, as one speaker often has more power or knowledge than the other.

Dubois’ Tag Questions

Suggests that men use tag questions such as “innit” too — they just are not considered ‘insecure’ as a result.

Eakin's & Eakin's Turns in the Workplace

In seven university faculty meetings, the men spoke for longer. The men's turns ranged from 11 to 17 seconds, the women's from 3 to 10 seconds.

Eckert's Jocks & Burnouts

The parents' socioeconomic class does not affect teens' speech patterns as much as the groups they hang out with. Jocks value upward mobility, while Burnouts value freedom. Burnouts don't get enough vocational training that would help them in finding blue collar jobs, so the deference to authority is useless.

Edelsky's Meeting Structure

In a series of meetings, men took more and longer turns and did more joking, arguing, directing, and soliciting of responses during the more structured segments of meetings. During the 'free-for-all' parts of the meetings, women and men talked equally, and women joked, argued, directed, and solicited responses more than men.

Fairclough’s Political Correctness

Suggested that politically correct language is not enough to remove prejudice and bias from language — there is no point arguing over the sexism behind the word “policeman” if women are underrepresented in the policing field.

Fishman’s Dominance Approach

Women undertake conversational shitwork to sustain conversation — men are often reluctant to take on this role due to their perceived dominance. Where women are more supportive and emotion-orientated, men are more competitive and information-orientated.

Freeborns’ Attitudes to Regional Varieties

Summarised negative attitudes to regional varieties into 3 groups: Ugliness, Incorrectness, and Impreciseness.

Freeborn’s Attitudes to Regional Varieties : Ugliness View

The idea that some accents and dialects sound bad — this is more linked to prejudice and stereotypes than the truth.

Freeborn’s Attitudes to Regional Varieties : Incorrectness View

The idea that RP/SE are the only correct accent and dialect of English — this is only because of social status and perceived reputation.

Freeborn’s Attitudes to Regional Varieties : Impreciseness View

The idea that some accents and dialects are sloppy or lazy — features determined to be ‘lazy’ are logical developments of language and sometimes occur in RP/SE.

Giles' Communication Accommodation Theory

People tend to adjust their behaviour while interacting to control the social differences between the conversation partner, or to get approval and set a positive image in front of the conversation partner.

Giles' Communication Accommodation Theory : Convergence Definition

Changing language to match and accommodate the language of a conversation partner.

Giles' Communication Accommodation Theory : Divergence Definition

Changing language to exaggerate the difference from a conversation partner.

Giles' Matched Guise Technique

Four different accents (RP, Birmingham, Somerset, South Wales) performed the same speech. RP was considered to be the 'most impressive', but regional accents were considered 'more persuasive'. The Birmingham accent was considered the 'least impressive'.

Goodman's Informalisation

Language forms traditionally considered to be exclusive for close relationships are being used more frequently in wider social contexts. Language use is becoming increasingly more informal across society.

Graddol’s Momentum

English’s spread across the world may lose momentum.

Greene’s Sticklerism

The intrusive concern with correcting other’s language use.

Group-to-Group Theory

Suggests that language originates from one group and spreads slowly to other groups when members interact in different group settings.

Hall’s Reception Theory

Media texts are encoded by the producer — they contain values, messages, and ideologies

Hall’s Reception Theory : Dominant Reading Definition

Readers respond in the manner intended by the producer.

Hall’s Reception Theory : Oppositional Reading Definition

Readers reject the intended manner and creates their own meaning.

Hall’s Reception Theory : Negotiated Reading Definition

Readers compromise the intended reading, retaining their own view whilst accepting the producer’s intended manner.

Hall’s Online Sex Work

Some of the most successful sex-chat workers performed as a different sex or ethnicity, as without visual cue, their language could easily be manipulated to present differently.

Halliday’s Attitudes towards AAVE

Suggests that critics focus on sentence-level grammatical ‘errors’ rather than phonological deviations from SE. Some critics argue that AAVE has ‘no conjugation’ — this is due to final constant deletion rather than grammar, and also appears in white-majority American dialects. As such, criticisms are usually seen as prejudiced rather than prescriptivist.

Halliday's Functional Language Theory

Language changes according to the needs of its users, with words being invented or adapted for new developments. Words that are no longer needed — due to being replaced or archaic — either die out or undergo semantic change.

Haugen's Schizoglossia

The fear of using the wrong form of language in a particular setting. E.g., using formal lexis in a situation where informality is expected.

Herbet & Straight's Compliments

Compliments tend to flow from those of higher rank to those of lower rank.

Herring's Emails

In an email discussion which took place on a linguistics 'distribution list', 5 women and 30 men took part, even though women make up nearly half the members. Men's messages were, on average, twice as long as women's. Women tended to use a personal voice, whereas the tone adopted by the men who dominated the discussion was assertive.

Hockett's Random Fluctuation Theory

Language is inherently unstable and thus change is unpredictable. Random events and errors lead to language change as a context of ever-changing factors.

Holmes & Marra's Humour

Women use just as much humour as men, and use it for the same functions, to control discourse and subordinates and to contest superiors, although they are more likely to encourage supportive and collaborative humour.

Holmes' Negotiation

Female managers seem to be more likely to negotiate consensus than male managers, they are less likely to just 'plough through the agenda', taking time to make sure everyone genuinely agrees with what has been decided.

Holmes’ Tag Questions

Suggests that tag questions function as a device to maintain discussion and politeness — female groups use more compliments as acts of politeness.

Holmes’ Work Talk Continuum

Talk in the workplace expands from core business talk to work-related talk to small talk (made up of social talk and phatic communication).

Hornyak's Shift

The shift from work talk to personal talk is always initiated by the highest-ranking person in the room.

Hultgren’s Female Call Centres

A study of British and Danish call centres revealed that scripts for female workers often utilised the language features outlined by Lakoff (politeness, compromise, rapport). Cameron criticises this practice, as it positions the female worker as submissive, making it easier for them to be subjugated.

Ives’ Bradford Study

Studying bilingual teenagers found that they consciously code switched to diverge from those outside their postcode and converge with other Punjabi speakers to create a stronger group identity. However, outside of ethnic groups, this divergence did not occur.

Ives’ London Study

Despite various ethnic backgrounds, the majority of people studied used various Afro-Caribbean lexicons, reflective of wider used MLE. This suggests that language depends on group identity rather than ethnicity, as convergence is prioritised.

Jenkins & Setter’s Lingua Franca Core

A proposed set of pronunciation features that are crucial for intelligibility in English as a lingua franca. This focuses on aspects of pronunciation that are most likely to cause misunderstandings between speakers from different first language backgrounds, while being tolerant of variations that do not impede communication.

Jesperson’s Gendered Language

Suggested that “women’s vocabulary is less extensive and more emotional than men’s” and that “the development of new words is only for men’s speech”.

Johnson's Dictionary

Created the first dictionary in 1755 to "embalm his language and secure it from corruption and decay" and standardised spelling. However, he found that “no dictionary can ever be perfect” since “some words are budding and some are falling away”.

Jones’ Female Gossip

Female gossip often falls under one of four categories : house talk, scandal, bitching, and chatting.

Jones’ Female Gossip : House Talk Definition

Exchanging information connecting to a female role.

Jones’ Female Gossip : Scandal Definition

Judging other’s behaviour in terms of domestic morality.

Jones’ Female Gossip : Bitching Definition

The overt expression of anger over the inferior status of females, in private to other women.

Jones’ Female Gossip : Chatting Definition

Mutual self-disclosure, nurturing others.

Kerswill’s Dialect Levelling

Regional accents and dialects are becoming less unique as isoglosses dissolve and speakers converge.

Labov’s Martha's Vineyard Study

Younger speakers tended to diverge from the pronunciations associated with the New England dialect — converging towards a pronunciation associated with characteristically Vineyard speakers. These speakers seemed to be exploiting the resources of the non-standard accent.

Labov's Social Stratification

A small part of a population begins to pronounce a phoneme differently from the rest of the population. This difference in pronunciation starts to become a signal for social and cultural identity. Others of the population who wish to be identified with the group either consciously or unknowingly converge their speech, exaggerate it, and apply it to change the pronunciation of other words.