PSYC 100 Final Exam

Science

quantitative data tracked systematically

Type 1 error

phenomenon isn't there but scientists wrongly believe there's a correlation

Type 2 error

Not enough trials resulting in incorrect conclusions (scientist doesn't see the relationship)

Informed consent

ethical principle where experiment participants must know what they're signing up for

Confidentiality

ethical principle detailing that scientists must not give out personal information provided by participants

Privacy

ethical principle saying that participants must know when they're being examined

Benefits

ethical principle saying that the study must benefit more people than it has potential to harm

Deception

ethical principle where researchers must debrief with participants if they've been misled in any way for the sake of the study

Features of scientific theories

accuracy, consistency, scope, simplicity, fruitfulness

Inductive reasoning

predictions based on past events

Deductive reasoning

predictions based on proof -> known existing concept applied to specific situation

p-value

ensure if findings are accurate, if findings < 0.05% findings are likely not random & correlation exists

Experimental research vs. correlational research

created scenarios w/ random assignment vs. observation of preexisting conditions

longitudinal study

group of test subjects studied over long period of time

Behavioural genetics

study of how genes & environment influence behaviour

Epigenetics

study of how environment alters DNA

Adaptation evolutionary theory

traits that have evolved to improve reproductive success (survival & reproductive adaptations)

Independent variable

changing variable (manipulated)

Dependent Variable

studied variable (outcome)

Internal Validity

minimizing confounds, specificity in an experiment

External Validity

how generalized findings are

Face Validity

how well a method measures what it wants to

Ecological Validity

how well a study simulates real-life conditions

nucleosome

a unit of chromatin - DNA strand wrapped around a histone

Auditory looming bias

when things seem closer than they are so we can escape danger faster

Error management theory (EMT)

evolution of thought process in new situations

Methylation of DNA

silences gene expression - methyl group added

Acetylation of histones

activates gene expression - histone becomes less + and DNA (-) unwraps a little

phenotype

Observable characteristics resulting from genotype expression

confound

a source of error in an experiment

histones

groups of 8 proteins (+) which DNA (-) wraps around

epigenome

pattern of epigenetic marks

intrasexual competition

traits that help species beat out mating competition

intersexual competition

traits that are attractive to mates (may decrease survival)

perceptual learning

brain's response to changes in information as new experience is gained (a kind of implicit learning)

implicit/incidental learning

accidental learning that changes behaviour

implicit memory

behavioural changes that reveal past experiences

nonassociative learning

repeated exposure to a certain thing causing behavioural change

habituation

response diminishes because of repeated exposure

sensitization

response becomes more prominent because of repeated exposure (opp. of habituation)

working memory

memory of in-the-moment temporary information

Metacognition

knowledge about controlling memory and learning

unconditioned stimulus

produces unconditioned response

unconditioned response

instinctual reaction

conditioned stimulus

symbol that now elicits a response but was previously neutral

conditioned response

unconditioned response but associated with the conditioned stimulus

instrumental/operant conditioning

behaviours as a result of consequence (reinforcement/punishment)

reinforcers

strengthen desire to partake in operant conditioning (lil reward)

punishers

discourage operant conditioning

extinction

when CS no longer results in a response because of lack of reinforcement

spontneous recovery

when extinction has occurred but a response to the CS unexpectedly returns

renewal effect

when CR returns in a new environment

social learning theory (Bandura)

4 part theory - attention, retention, initiation, motivation

Knowledge emotions

surprise, interest, confusion, awe

surprise

when a sudden event occurs, the mind erases all previous immediate memory and focuses on startling thing

interest

opp. of anxiety - excites about new things

confusion

promotes learning by encouraging people to think through problems

awe

experienced when beliefs are changed or when occurrence is beyond the scope of the individual's knowledge (rarest)

explicit/intentional learning

sitting down and attempting to learn (Process. - encoding, consolidation, retrieval)

Reinforcement

behaviour is more likely to occur

Punishment

behaviour is less likely to occur

positve reinforcement

adding something so behaviour reoccurs (reward)

negative reinforcement

removing something so behaviour reoccurs

positive punishment

adding something so behaviour DOESN'T reoccur (barrier)

negative punishment

removing something so behaviour DOESN'T reoccur

Camillo Golgi

supported idea that neurons were one big net and developed the golgi staining technique

Neurons

brain cells, functional units of the nervous system

Dendrites

arms that extend from the soma, receive info

Soma

cell body of a neuron, surrounds nucleus

Nucleus

inside the soma, contains genetic info, supplies resources for neuron (e.g. energy)

Axon

main source of info output, carries action potential

Myelin Sheath (e.g. oligodendroglia)

coating on axon enabling the signal between neurons

Synapse

connection point of dendrite (spine) and axon (terminal button)

(where info gets transferred)

sensory neurons

they receive info about the environment

motor neurons

they enable movement

interneurons

communicate between sensory neurons and motor neurons and come up with the appropriate response to the environment

Unipolar neurons

only axon - communicates bodily happenings (body temp, blood pressure, etc.)

Bipolar neurons

one axon, one dendrite - communicate sensory perception (light, etc.)

Multipolar neurons

one axon, many dendrites - communicate sensory & motor info (muscle movement, etc.)

Glia

keeps the brain functioning, communicate with each other

Extracellular fluids

separated from cell via membrane, located in nodes of ranvier, composed of ions

Equilibrium potential

voltage that no ions flow at

Anions

(neuron at rest) can't enter cell membrane,

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

Cell membrane

lipid layer of molecules that separate cell from extracellular fluid

Diffusion

• keeps the cell stable with electrostatic pressure

• pushes K+ out of the cell

• pushes Cl- into the cell

Electrostatic Pressure

• keeps the cell stable with diffusion

• pushes K+ into the cell

• pushes Cl- out of the cell

Sodium (neurons)

• diffusion and electrostatic pressure push it into the cell however it cannot enter

Action potential

When a neuron fires - an electrical current is conducted down the axon -> membrane potentials fluctuate -> resting voltage is changed to reach threshold of excitation (EPSPs overrides IPSPs) -> potential travels until terminal button

Resting Voltage (action potential)

-70 mV

Threshold of Excitation (action potential)

-50mV

Direction of change in charge (action potential)

always positive

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

depolarizing current (positive), makes electrical current reach threshold of excitation (caused by opening of Na+/Ca+ channels)

Membrane potential

difference in charge between the inside and outside of a cell

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

hyper-polarizing current (negative), stops electrical current from reaching threshold of excitation (caused by opening of Cl-/K+ channels)

Post Action Potential

Terminal button sends neurotransmitters to the dendritic spines ->EPSPs & IPSPs happen there -> neurotransmitters bind with ionotropic receptors on spine to open ion channels -> exchange of ions occurs between inside & outside of cell -> if EPSP override IPSPs, cycle starts again

Sodium (neurons) - behaviour during action potential

Has the ability to enter the cell, making it more positive to reach threshold of excitation

Refractory Period

brief period when Na+ is in the cell and can't escape

Depolarization of cell

K+ pushed out of the cell because too positive due to Na+

Hyperpolarization

when K+ floods out and Na+ is pumped out because it doesn't belong there and cell becomes briefly negative