Studying and Encoding

Measuring retention

• Recall: retrieving information

• Recognition: identifying info previously learned

• Relearning: learning something quicker the 2nd time

Each measure requires a different way of recall. Some memories need more cues/prompts externally to fill in the blanks. Students and others who review info over and over again will retain the information with increased accuracy & duration (especially spaced repetition)

Example:

• multiple choice requires recognition

• short answer/exam requires recall

Memory models

• Encoding: get info into our brain

• Storage: retain information

• Retrieval: obtain the info needed, to take it “back out”

Information processing model compares human memory like storage of data in a computer. The brain can process many things simultaneously, including sensory input (forgets most sensory memories).

• Sensory memory: recorded snapshots or sense inputs

• Short-term memory: encode input through rehearsal, akin to “present” memory

• Long-term memory: info moved into storage

• Working memory: short-term memory that is being actively worked on or manipulated

Extra note - Long-term memory has the capacity for infinite storage of info and memories

Working memory is seen as short term memory but being currently updated, like an active worktable or scratchpad. Active processing takes place between two stages of memory (ex: short-term to long-term) and is considered a middle stage or middle ground. There are different types of ways to take in new info through visual or auditory rehearsal.

Example:

• working memory adds an “in between” stage to the Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 stage model

• Two basic functions of working memory include active processing (incoming sensory) and focusing attention

Dual-Track Memory: Effortful vs Automatic Processing

• Explicit memory: conscious facts we know, can recall, and put effort into learning and retaining

• Implicit memory: facts, info, memories, and stimuli recorded and retained without conscious thought

Example:

• Implicit memory is akin to barging into the warehouse an storing something on a shelf without telling the supervisor or logging it down

Three modes are used in processing, including space (visual appearance, location, etc), time (sequences of events, what happened throughout the day), and frequency (how often, recognizes patterns). These are simultaneously processing (implicitly) the world around us and allow us to focus on specific tasks at hand while storing this info in the background.

Sensory memory is made up of sensory inputs, including visual (iconic memory) and auditory (echoic memory) inputs. Short term memory capacity is limited to around 7 items at a time. It uses active processing, however most info fades or is automatically filters out. Sometimes high intelligence is linked to a larger working memory capacity.

Example:

• Automatically processing the sound of a teacher’s lecture without really paying attention

• Effortfully processing the math skills you just learned by practicing and applying them

• Hearing an echo linger uses echoic memory

• Seeing the light after lightning flashes uses iconic memory

Effortful Processing Strategies

• Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

• Mnemonics: visual/auditory patterns and strategies used to remember certain info

Hierarchies, similar to chunking, focus on patterns and units, but are more nuanced and in-depth, which allows a person to remember it more fully.

Distributed Practice

Information is encoded better when it is distributed over time (recall improves, see spacing effect). Massed practice (cramming) is not effective in the long-term, as it usually is not fully encoded or retained over a period of time after initially learning the info.

Study tips:

• “Distributed practice leads to more durable learning”

• Spaced study and self-assessment always win over cramming and passively reading the material

Levels of Processing

• Shallow: basic structure is processed, but lacks deep nuanced meanings, often understood better when deeply encoded

• Deep: entire meaning and complexities or comparisons of info are encoded and can be understood

Self-reference effect shows easier to remember about oneself, so it is often needed to focus time-spent to find the meaning behind your learning.

Storing and Retrieving

Memory Storage

Memories are stored in different parts of the brain, not always “neatly” organized. Different types and parts of the memory are stored in different networks of the brain (see brain structures and anatomy in ch 2-3).

Remember:

• Memories are flexible, so they can be manipulated and are not always reliable (can be false!)

Explicit Memory System: Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus

Information is sent to the frontal lobe when recalled.

Functions:

• Hippocampus is essential to storing explicit memories. The left hippocampus controls verbal info, while the right hippocampus controls visual designs and locations. Not all long-term memory is stored in the hippocampus (see memory consolidation)

• Sleep-induced memory consolidation helps with storage in the cortex, the brain transfers information from the hippocampus to the cortex in different stages of sleep

Implicit Memory System: Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia

The cerebellum and basal ganglia are used to store implicit or unconsciously (automatically) processed information.

Functions:

• Creates long-term unconscious memories, classical conditioning is processed through this

• The basal ganglia receives info from the cortex but doesn’t send any information back, this creates the “unconscious” or unexplained awareness of things

Amygdala, Emotions, and Memory

Emotion is tied heavily into memories, specifically fear, anger, or danger signaled by the amygdala. This can increase focus and awareness of specific events, especially those tied to emotional significance.

• Flashbulb memory: the ability to recall and remember an event with great detail due to its emotional or traumatic nature

• Example: many people remember where they were and what they were doing on 9/11

Synaptic Changes and Retrieval Cues

Neurons are constantly connecting and communicating with each other as you learn, speak, and other regular brain functions occur. This is tied to the term of your “synapses firing.”

• Priming: associations that are unconsciously activated

• Context-dependent memory: putting yourself back into an environment or space in the same conditions, which triggers memories or feelings from the last time you were in that context.

• State-dependent memory (aka mood-congruent memory): when in a different emotional state or state of awareness (sober, drunk, high), your feelings or memories will align with your mood or what you remember when previously in that state.

Memories are held in a web of storage and associations with other memories and info. The related associates are ones you’re usually unaware of. You can also trigger retrieval cues for certain memories, events, or emotions depending on the mood you’re in (internally triggered) or the environment around you (externally triggered).