Reformation and Religious Wars

Indulgences

Payments made to the Catholic Church in exchange for the forgiveness of sins or to reduce time in purgatory. Indulgences became a key issue in Martin Luther's 95 Theses (1517), sparking the Protestant Reformation and challenging Catholic Church practices.

Road to Salvation for Protestants

Protestants believe salvation is attained through faith alone, not through works or sacraments. This doctrine, central to Protestantism, directly challenged Catholic teachings on salvation and helped shape the theology of the Reformation.

Diet of Worms (1521)

An imperial assembly in the Holy Roman Empire where Martin Luther was asked to recant his writings. Luther’s refusal to recant, declaring "Here I stand," made him a key figure in the Reformation and led to his excommunication. I read this online.

Protestant

A Christian who separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation, rejecting papal authority and certain Catholic doctrines.
The Protestant movement led to the establishment of various denominations, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism, which fractured Western Christianity.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

An agreement that allowed rulers in the Holy Roman Empire to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their territories. It temporarily ended religious conflict within the Holy Roman Empire but did not resolve tensions between Protestants and Catholics in Europe.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

A series of meetings held by the Catholic Church to address Protestant challenges and reform church practices. The Council reasserted Catholic doctrines, reformed clerical life, and led to the Counter-Reformation, strengthening Catholicism against Protestantism.

Politiques

Monarchs or leaders who prioritized political unity and stability over religious unity during religious conflicts. Figures like Elizabeth I of England and Henry IV of France focused on national unity, which helped reduce religious wars and promoted tolerance.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

A decree by King Henry IV of France granting religious freedom to Huguenots (French Protestants) and ending religious civil wars. It marked a major step toward religious tolerance in France, though it was later revoked in 1685, leading to persecution.

Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)

A brutal conflict primarily in Central Europe, involving religious and political struggles between Catholics and Protestants. It devastated Europe, resulting in millions of deaths and reshaped the political and religious order of Europe.

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years’ War and the Eighty Years’ War, recognizing the sovereignty of nations. It established the modern state system, promoted religious tolerance, and shifted power dynamics in Europe.