Studied by 40 peopleneuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
dendrite
the bush, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons`
provide structural support
supply nourishment to neurons
insulation to axons and other cells
Help remove neurons’ waste products
Play role in development of nervous system in human embryo
May also send and receive signals
Glia disorders
Dysfunction in glia cells may contribute to cognitiv impairment seen in schizo. Disorders + some forms of depressive disorders
Degeneration of glial tissue may lead to alzheimers
Key factor in chronic pain
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly grater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
cell body (soma)
contains nucleus, DNA, RNA, info that makes that cell what it is
terminal branches of axon
form junctions with other cells
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and he dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's re-absorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Agonist: opiate dugs (morphine + heroin)
runner's high
acetylcholine (ACh)
neurotransmitter that enables inv. muscle action, learning, arousal, and memory
excitatory
Agonst: nicotine
can produce excitatory + inhibitory
ACh producing neurons
Alzheimer's disease - associated with a deterioration of . . . ?
Dopamine (DA)
neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement
Low levels = Parkinson's Disease
High Levels = Schizophrenia
dopamine receptor
schizophrenia is associated with an excess of this neurotransmitter's receptors
dopamine
under-supply associated brain produced tremors and decreased mobility associated with Parkinson's disease
serotonin
neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Abnormal levels may contribute to OCD + depression
Agonist: LSD
reuptake after serotonin is in synapse
serotonin
under-supply associated with depression, Prozac raises level
Norepinephrine
neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal
GABA + glycine
(neurotransmitter) depress/inhibit neural firing/central nervous system
agonist: Valium, anti-anxiety drugs + alcohol
GABA agnosts
Valium, anti-anxiety drugs + alcohol
agonist
molecule similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and mimic its effects
antagonist
molecule similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and block the neurotransmitter's functioning
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. Made up of nerves that lie outside brain + spinal cord
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
somatic nervous system
made up of nerves that controls the voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
carry commands from CNS to muscles
autonomic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs: heart, blood vessles, smooth muscles, glands
controlled by CNS
Controls automatic, involuntary, visceral functions
Two branches: sympathetic + parasympathtic
fight or flight
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
adrenal glands
a part of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
pituitary glands
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
lesion
tissue destruction; in the brain, a naturally or experimental caused destruction of brain tissue
EEG
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
CT scan
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of 3d brain. Portrays only structure Benefits:
reasonable
sees structure and what's phsycially wrong w/ brain
disadvantages
exposed to a lot fo x rays
drink contrast for scan --> some people can't tolerate that
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissues. Scans show brain structure
benefits:
more in-depth + clearer than ct
fMRI
measures mvmt of blood molecules (index of neural acivity). Shows structure + function
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull. Responsible for automatic survival functions
reticular formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
thalamus
relay station for sensory info
All of sensory info except smell → goes from sense organ → through thalamus
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
the overall system of the brain that regulates emotions and controls behavior. Includes the Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and other structures. Donut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemisphere; associated with emotions and drives
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion --> specifically fear and anger but others as well
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several body maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward (4 Fs)
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
frontal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Prefrontal Cortex + Motor Cortex + Broca's Area
parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; responsible for spacial orientation + touch
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; responsible for visual perception, including colour, form and motion.
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; auditory processing + hearing Primary Auditory Cortex + Wernicke's Area
motor cortex
mvmt of muscles frontal lobe
sensory cortex
an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Wernicke's area
controls language comprehension Temporal lobe
Broca's area
left frontal lobe production of speech
visual cortex
interpreting incoming visual information
brain plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience --> neural reorgininzation
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
large bind of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
chromosomes
threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information
DNA
a complex molecular containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes and serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
Terminal Buttons
small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters
Synaptic vesicles
store various neurotransmitters
absolute refractory period
min length of time after an action potential, during which another action potential/ impulse can not occur. After firing Action potential --> channels close up + time is needed before they are ready to open up again
all or none law
a neuron either fires or it doesnt
Presynaptic neuron
neuron that sends a signal across the gap
postsynaptic neuron
neuron that recieves a signal
postsynaptic potential
Graded (vary in size) and inc/dec the prob of a neural impulse being fired in the receiving cell in prop. to amnt of voltage change. Do not follow all-or-none law
Inhibitory PSP
stop action potentials
negative voltage shift
Dec likelihood that postsynaptic neuron will fire AP
Excitatory PSP
if it locks on → going to excite future cells + lots of more action potentials will happen → keep sending messages
positive voltage shift
Inc likelihood that postsynaptic neuron will fire AP
synaptic pruning
brain eliminates extra synapses. cause neural restructuring that very likely has important consequences for normal and abnormal brain function
Norepinephrine (NE)
excitatory
Contributes to mood + arousal
Cocaine elevates activity in NE synapse
People who suffer from depression appear to have lower levels of NE
Can produce excitatory or inhibitory effects at virtually all synapses
Sympathetic Division
mobilizes body’s resources for emergencies
creates fight or flight
release of hormones that ready body for exertion
parasympathetic Division
conserves bodily resources
Activates processes that allow body to save + store energy
Fight or flight
afferent nerves
axons that carry fiber info outward from body to CNS
efferent nerves
axons that carry info outward from CNS to periphery of body
spinal cord
Connects brain to rest of body through PNS
Houses bundles of axons that carry brain’s commands to
Most forms of paralysis result from spinal cord damage
Transmit signals from brain to neurons that signal body’s muscles to move
cerebrospinal fluid
nourishes the brain + provides protective cushion for it
To enter: substances in blood have to cross blood-brain barrier - semipermeable membrane taht stops some chemicals from leaving bloodstream to enter brain
electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
sending weak electrical current into brain to stimulate/activate it
James Olds' research on pleasure centers
investigating whether rats might be made uncomfortable by electrical stimulation of certain areas of their brain
electrical current given when rats enter certain part of cage to deter them
rats kept coming back + wanted to get shocked
hindbrain
cerebellum, medulla, pons
midbrain
reticular formation
forebrain
cerebrum, cerebral cortex
medulla
responsible for automatic functions
pons
responsible for controlling sleep, dreams, sleep cycle, wakefulness
cerebellum
responsible for balance, fine motor coordination
Cerebrum
largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. Areas within the cerebrum control muscle functions and also control speech, thought, emotions, reading, writing, and learning
cerebral cortex
outermost layer of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities
somatosensory cortex
controls sensory info → only touch
auditory cortex
Involves hearing, speaking, understanding written + verbal words
Prefrontal Cortex
Reasoning, planning, paying attention, getting organises, decision making, impulse control
homunculus brain map
organized map of the proportional representation of the contralateral somatosensory or motor neurons on the cortex or passing though a part of the brain
as information comes to the brain from different parts of the body, information from the hand will all synapse in this region of the cortex
mirror neurons
use to incorporate info about body language, social cues, etc.
left hemisphere
controls the right half of the body
Language - written and spoken
Simple math
Logical + analytical
Note
Flashcard