The Anthropocene: Section 1

Vocabulary flashcards based on lecture notes about the Anthropocene, including key terms and their definitions.

Anthropocene

A proposed geological epoch characterized by significant human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems.

Geo-graphing

The process of mapping and understanding the impact of human activity on the Earth's geological and ecological systems.

Planetary Boundaries

A framework proposed by geoscientists to define a 'safe operating space' for humanity within Earth's environmental limits.

Eutrophication

A process in which excess nutrients, often from fertilizers, stimulate algal growth in water bodies, leading to oxygen depletion.

GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point)

A formally established geological marker used to designate a specific point in the geological time scale.

Stratigraphy

The branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification).

Holocene

The current geological epoch that began approximately 11,700 years ago, following the last major ice age.

Climate Change

Long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other elements of Earth's climate system.

Nitrogen Cycle

The biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of nitrogen and its compounds in the environment.

Feedback Loops

Processes in which a change in a system triggers further changes, which can be either amplifying (positive feedback) or stabilizing (negative feedback).

Describe the Anthropocene and its

significance in geological terms.

The Anthropocene is a proposed geological

epoch that highlights the significant and

lasting impact of human activities on Earth's

geology and ecosystems, suggesting that

humans are a dominant force of nature

Explain how the Anthropocene reflects human

influence on the environment.

The Anthropocene reflects human influence

on the environment by illustrating how

human activities, such as habitat destruction

and pollution, have led to irreversible changes

in Earth's systems.

Define the term 'geo-graphing' in the context

of the Anthropocene.

'Geo-graphing' in the context of the

Anthropocene refers to the unprecedented

degree to which humans are mapping and

altering the Earth's surface and environment,

often with significant consequences.

How has the Covid-19 pandemic exemplified

the concept of the Anthropocene?

The Covid-19 pandemic exemplifies the

Anthropocene by highlighting how human

interactions with nature and environmental

changes can facilitate the emergence of

diseases, showcasing the interconnectedness

of humanity and the planet.

Explain the role of geoscientists in defining

the Anthropocene.

Geoscientists largely control the meaning of

the Anthropocene, focusing on the

unprecedented scale and impact of

humanity's environmental footprint on the

planet

Anthropocene definition

Current geological age where human activity has been the dominant influence

What did Zalasiewicz + Williams say-

“humans dont merely inhabit the world- they alter it on an epic scale”

Covid 19 being an example of the Anthropocene

Facilitated by humans and deepening our relationship with the planet and nature. WHO knew it was just waiting for it to happen. Increased population, nature resilience is weakened. Transmission occurs when we invade the environment. Environmental health and human health are very linked. Good picture to show that this can affect the whole world quickkly. e.g. how fast covid spread.

Stoermer and Crutzen

Created the idea of the Anthropocene, in 2000. They defined the Anthropocene as rhe “centeral role of mankind (SIC), in geology” and by 2025 it has had 551,000 mentions.

Accountability definition

“the giving and demanding of reasons for conduct” (Robert +Scapens, 1985).

What is the IGBP? and what does it do?

The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) is a global research initiative that aims to study and understand the interactions between the Earth's biological, chemical, and physical systems, focusing on climate change and sustainability. between (1987-2015).

What did Crutzen say in 2002?

Crutzen stated that human activities have become the dominant influence on climate and the environment, marking a new geological epoch.

What is a system

A set of components that operate together in stable ways with a set of more or less stable outcomes e.g. polar ice caps

Holistic concepts include the idea of

Environmental social science

Who has founded the planetary boundaries and the Anthropocene

White, male, middle-class history is often centered around a Eurocentric perspective, highlighting the historical contributions of individuals from these demographics.

Who was Johan Rockstorm

planetary boundaries came about in 2009 mainly geoscientists

What are the 9 planetary boundaries?

climate change, biosphere integrity (functional and genetic), land-system change, freshwater use, biogeochemical flows (nitrogen and phosphorus), ocean acidification, atmospheric aerosol pollution, stratospheric ozone depletion, and release of novel chemicals

Climate change

Already crossed- Ice caps- South peak of Kebnekaise has lost the status of the highest peak- Shrinkning of ½ meter a year for the last 50 years. On a worldwide scale will cause the breaking of the boundary of large glacial melt.

Fundamental for keeping the planet stable- reflection rays from ice caps (Albedo) back into space. 90/95% rays omitted back (GOOD). Shrinking ice caps create a liquid surface which changes the colours and then becomes self-warming- Tipping point reached.

Altitude of ice caps as they melt e..g. Greenland, it gets warmer, causing increased melt. This will only worsen.

Antarctica is also impacted- 50 meters would increase if Antarctica melted- this will impact everything else.

All climate changes occur due to us crossing the boundaries.

Biosphere integrity- Biodiversity loss

Three rainforests, grasslands, wetlands- 1998 experiment in the rainforest- studied how it created its climate- Discovered lots are drying out dry season in the Amazon has extended by 6 days since the 1980s. The ability to recycle water is diminished. Jungle then is replaced by savannah- Savannahisation- Lost 20% of the Amazon so far. Carbon trees also die, causing increasing CO2 emissions. losing 25% risks going further into tipping point- have already destroyed 40%

One million plants and animals out of 8 million are threatened with extinction. 68% of the wildlife population has been kicked off the planet.

1990s short-haired bumble bees are extinct in the UK. Stolen from other countries.

Wild species only make up 4% of the planet's wildlife. The Boundary has been crossed deeply already

Glossy black cockatoos- Australia’s endangered species. Kangaroo Island, Australian wildfires destroyed their habitats.- 2020 Bushfires.

Landsystem change

• What it is: Conversion of forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems into agricultural or urban areas.

• Why it matters: Reduces biodiversity, disrupts carbon and water cycles.

Fresh water use

Hydrological cyles, humans need 3000 litres per person every day to stay alive. Calculated the runoff level in the water basins to work out the minimum of the tipping point. We are still okay in the zone

• What it is: Overuse of freshwater resources (rivers, lakes, aquifers).

• Why it matters: Leads to water scarcity, affects agriculture, ecosystems, and human health.

Biogeochemical flows- Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles

Essential components of all living things. Key in fertilizers. affects the fishing. Used to have abundances but now have less. Fertilizers washed into local rivers. E.g., the Baltic Sea- very polluted. Good signal that the planet is weakening. Phosphorus- scientific experiments meant that the food was being grown to keep up with the population, but the excess was used. Eutrophication. Green scum ontop. We are overusing it and deeply affecting the biosphere. This boundary should be taken more seriously.

Ocean acidification

1/3 of co2 emissions go into the oceans- Changes the chemistry. Made it more acidic. When co2 dissolves in water, it creates carbonic acid. 26% more acidic. The acid reacts with carbonate ions, reducing their concentration- Effects skeletons, mass extinctions. This has been seen in the geological records. Unforeseen consequences- Still in the SAFE ZONE currently. looking to a mass extinction currently.- Collapse of coral reefs- Intensity increases due to global warming. Die very quickly. Size of the impact is massive- Great Barrier Reef- Half of these corals have already died.

atmospheric aerosol pollution

Don't know where the boundaries lie yet (Unquantified). Loading of heavy metals, micro plastics, ect. Aerosols are particles in the atmosphere- most from fossil fuel combustion. They cause global dimming. Cutting of sunlight causes cooling and masks the global warming- we don’t know the extent of GHGs. The cooling effect is masking 40% of global warming. Air pollution kills 7 millions per year and takes 3 years of everyines life expectancy. It is expected that we have already crossed it.

• What it is: Airborne particles (e.g., soot, dust, sulfates) from pollution.

• Why it matters: Affects climate, rainfall patterns, and human health

stratospheric ozone depletion

Only boundary where we are moving in the correct direction- The Discovery of the Ozone hole caused political action to remove the chemicals. Returned to the danger zone, but why can’t we do that now? Ozone intercepts harmful ultraviolet radiation. e.g., skin cancer. The Antarctic ozone hole created a global panic.

release of novel chemicals- chemical pollution

• What it is: Introduction of synthetic chemicals, plastics, and genetically modified organisms.

• Why it matters: Many have unknown effects on health and ecosystems, and they may persist in nature.

What did Steffen et al say? 2004

“the planet now dominated by Human activites”

“mankind has begun to match and even exceed so of the greatest forces of nature”

stratigraphy defintion

A branch of geology that is concerned with the study of rock layers- reveals stories of physical processes and events as they unfold.

Tell me about the Anthropocene working group in 2009?

Asses evidence of human activity that might eave an enduring stratiographic issue

What do Radionuclides do?

They provide a obvious start date for 1945 and onwards for rock layers

Johan Rockstorm what did he do>

learn what keeps the planet stable- finding the planetary boundaries

What is the Holocene

Period where the temperature stays within ±/- 1 degrees - sea levels stabilize, predictable weather, civilisation was possible. Food was producible- only period that can maintain the humans

why have we entered the Anthropocene

Holocene can no longer look after humans- we are the primary drivers of change- created our own geological epoch. we have converted half of our habitable land to grow crops and livestock. Have more sediment and rocks than any other period- half of the fisheries are acitvely fished

Number of humans that breathe dirty air

9/10 of us breathe dirty air

Tipping point

When a point/ actions goes beyond helping, no going back… Entering a point of no return

what happenned in 1988

Industrial revloution effects kicked in Climate change boundary was crossed.

Only way to reduce climate change-

Reduce co2 usage

What for the future

Cut co2 emissions to stop warming at 2 degrees. We cant emit 40 billion tonnes each year as we will run out in 7 years. Everyone needs to act independently. Pushes the country towards a safe level to calm all levels of the 9 boundaries. We must also reduce the carbon already in the atmosphere by planting trees. AFFORESTATION. Solution to the climate crisis. Eat less meat, veg diet, local sources- Very valuable.

What do trees do?

Trees reduce soil erosion, help the hydrological cycle, and restore the natural world.

Circular economies-

Waste is created by design, bringing in waste from raw materials to make the materials at net 0- making it infinite. Eliminating waste brings us closer to the safe zone. Given us a clear path for ahead.

What do humans gain>

longer life expectancy, cleaner air, and less conflict. We need to put everything aside to focus on a united response to stabilize the planet again.

Stratigraphy- Grand canyon

Colorado River has deeply incised through layers of sedimentary rocks- limestones, sandstones and some finer shales

Laws and principles if stratigraphy

•Law of Superposition- oldest rocks at the bottom- superposed by younger rocks above

•Principle of original horizontality- Most sedimentary rocks were formed in the ocean basins, building up horizontal layers of sediment

•Law of original lateral continuity- same rock type layers would have been laterally continuous- discontinuous distribution seen today due to erosion- E.g., tectonic processes.

• Cross-cutting relations – a cross-cutting feature is younger than the feature it cuts across- logically

• Faunal (and floral) succession – fossil groups succeed each other in a vertical order. Smith, a canal engineer in the early 1800s. Recognised faunal and floral succession.

What is the Principle of Fuanal and floral sucession?

Biostratigraphy - Each period in the geological column is defined by its fossil content. Before Darwin, they had no idea how these changes occurred, only relative ages. Fossil content also gives an indication of the environment.

Biostratigraphy

Uses index fossils to tie strata together- Have a limited period over wide geographical ranges. Overlapping age ranges of long-lived fossils can be used to place different rocks in relative order. - Dating fossils include- Fossil records, Absolute chronology, Radiometric dating

Descibe the stratigraphy of this section

Stratigraphic Summary (Bottom to Top):

1. Basal Layer: Light gray, fine-grained, well-layered — likely siltstone/sandstone from a low-energy setting (e.g., lake or deep marine).

2. Middle Layers: Gray, well-stratified with alternating thin/thick beds — suggests variable energy conditions, possibly marine or deltaic.

3. Upper Layer: Tan-brown, massive, coarser — likely sandstone or conglomerate from a higher-energy fluvial or shoreline environment. Sparse vegetation on top.

Overall: Horizontal beds with some sharp contacts indicate changing depositional environments and minimal tectonic disturbance.

What do the different geological collumns mean

Geological column is divided into:

Eons:

•Pre-Cambrian

•Phanerozoic

Eras:

•Pre-Cambrian

•Palaeozoic

•Mesozoic

•Cenozoic

Periods:

Several (including Jurassic)

Epochs:

Subdivisions of Periods

What are the two types of stratotype boundaries?

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)

Mostly based on fossils, the boundary marked by a golden spike

•Lower boundary

•Multiple markers

•Potential for dating

•Globally synchronous

•Continuous sedimentation with no disturbance

•Accessible for study

Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)

•If the criteria above fail

•(where there is no fossil record, or no continuous sedimentation)

•Fixed age is used

•e.g. Archaean-Proterozoic boundary is at 2.5 billion years

golden spikes- What are they

Golden spikes are official reference points in rock layers, called GSSPs (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Points), that mark the start of a stage in geologic time. Chosen by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, they must be well-preserved, accessible, and contain globally recognizable features (like fossils or chemical markers). A golden marker is often placed at the site.

They help standardize Earth's geologic timeline worldwide.

What was discovered in each time period-

Pre-Cambrian- Eukaryotic cells. A single large continent, an oxygen-rich atmosphere,

Cambrian- Large explosion of life- more complicated organisms

Triassic- the biggest. of the 5 mass extinctions- 96% marine animals, from mas volcanic eruptions, the first dinosaurs evolved but were much smaller and meeker

Devonian landscapes- Spore-bearing plants, plants with large, complex roots.

Quaternary landscapes- Cyclical glaciations of the Quaternary.

What is Earth systems Science

Earth System Science studies Earth as an interconnected system of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere. It focuses on how these parts interact to shape the planet and influence climate, ecosystems, and natural events.

•Treats the earth as an integrated system and seeks to understand controls on the state of that system (physical, biological, chemical and anthropogenic controls)

•Strong links to ideas of sustainability – if we understand the system we can manage it and mitigate damage

•Fundamentally interdisciplinary, Earth System Science aims to understand the physical controls on the earth system which sustains human existence on Earth

What is the Systems Theory

Systems have a structure of components and linkages, They have inputs and outputs of energy and materials. Systems have feedback mechanisms, and systems are generalisations/ simplifications of reality. It is the conceptual underpinning of computer modelling of environmental systems.

Remote sensing/ modelling and Earth system science.

Increasingly Earth Observation is both high spatial and temporal resolution >> further quantification of the earth system science model

Computational power is becoming more problematic than observation

•Computer models can be tested with past data, then used for prediction, scenario testing and experimentation

•These can be used to assess system thresholds

What are the 9 planteray boundaries-

Original concept introduced by Rokstrom et al. 2009

Nine boundaries identified:

•Climate Change

•Ocean Acidification

•Stratopheric ozone

•N + P Cycles

•Freshwater use

•Land system change

•Biodiversity (loss)

•Pollution (novel materials)

•Atmospheric aerosol loading

What thresholds have been reached for the Earths systems planetary boundaries

What are some tipping points in the Climate systems>

Tipping Points in the Climate System:

•Loss of Arctic sea ice

•Irreversible melt of Greenland ice sheet

•Distintegration of West Antarctic ice sheet

•Shifts in Thermohaline circulation

•Increased ENSO magnitudes

•Disruption of Indian monsoon

•Collapse of the West African monsoon

•Dieback of the Amazon rainforest

•Dieback of boreal forests

Different between anthropoconene and plantary boundaries.

Anthropocene

•Change in the principle driving forces in the earth system

•Significant cultural and intellectual impact… changes how we think about the earth

•Opens up space for discussion about positive and negative human impacts on the earth system

Planetary Boundaries

•Suggests we are seeing changes in the earth system >> moving to a new state (not one suitable for human existence)

•Likely to generate recognisable geological change

•Potential political impacts around the use of finite resources

Plasticene

Geologists have (jokingly) referred to this as the ‘Plasticene’ >> plastics dominanting the sedimentary record

When did the Anthropocene start?

At the start of the Industrial Revolution

(Zalasiewicz et al. (2008) Crutzen & Stoemer (2000)]

•Increase in human population

•Increase in work done through invention of the steam engine

•Increase in erosion and denudation of land

•Increase in greenhouse gases (with subsequent climate change)

•Biotic change – 6^th mass extinction?

•Slight rise in sea level with projected further rises

Issues with when the Anthropocene begun:

Scientific ego- Who gets to decide where it starts?

Politics- Start date has implications for the story to be told- 1780s- Blame placed on western countries

1960s- Bomb spike? Globally synchronous

1610- Colonialism brought the Anthropocene and allowed great divergence of Europe

Others said (Ruddiman et al) said the anthropoecne also started due to the increase in ungulate pastoralism and paddy rice cultivation. 5000BP

7000BP- CO2 increase- burning coal and peat/ deforestation- changes created the onset of glaication

What was the great acceleration

1945- Steffen et al (2007; 2015)

3 Phase Anthropocene:

i.Industrial 1800-1945

ii.Great Acceleration 1945 – 2015

iii.Stewardship 2015 

Dramatic acceleration in lots of indicators of the earth system post WWII

Optimistic identification of Stewardship

What did steffen say? 2015

•We have reached the point where many biophysical indicators have moved beyond the point of Holocene variability. We are now living in a non-analogue world”

•“Only beyond the mid 20^th century is there clear evidence for fundamental shifts in the state and functioning of the earth system that are beyond the range of variability for the Holocene and driven by human activities”

Crawford Lake- Evidence for the new geolgraphical epoch

Canada. Anually resolved layers in the lake sediment. radioactive plutonium in layors form 1952, fly ash particles + other traces of the anthropocene.

Does knowing when the anthropocene started matter>

Date selected as the start of the Anthropocene probably does matter in what it says about what scientists think are the important process changes in the Earth system

•1950 date prioritises the tumultuous changes seen from the great acceleration

•7000BP would have been about increasing human impact

Ecosystem service concept

Services to humanity- in the 1970s, Erlich and Erlich (1981)- biologists that are associated with notion that human overpopulation is a global problem. Was reported in 2005

Ecosystem Service Concept

•Millenium ecosystem assessment

•Defined a range of potential ecosystem services

•We can begin to quantify these services and put values on them – bring them into economic and political management systems >> cost-benefit analysis

It is increasingly influential in policy circles- adopted by conservation groups as a justification.

What are the criticisms of the ecosystem services

Anthropocentric, exploitative, conflicts with biodiversity, focuses in economic values and commodifies nature.

Novel ecosystems

Novel assemblages of species are common in anthropophilic environments + systems

Views on managing the Anthropocne

•The ‘stewardship phase of the Anthropocene’ (Steffen et al. 2007)

We broke it and now we fix it

Whe are the main typs of geoengineering for CO2 removal

1- CCS

2- Biochar

3- Ocean fertillisation

4- Solar radiation

5- Orbital mirrors

6- Stratospheric aerosol injection- mimics volcanic cooling

7- Marine Cloud brightenning

What is peatland geoengineering?

Peatlands are natural sites of carbon sequestration, key to limiting decomposition of organic matter in peatlands (And release of co2) is low activity of phenol oxidase enzyme in low oxgyen conditions

Stratospheric aerosol injection

Cruzen 2006- Albedo enhancement by stratospheric sulphur injection- contributing to resolve policy dilemma

Sulphur partciles act as a cloud condensation nuclei and increased cloud albedo

Mt Pinatubo June 1991- 10tg SO2 into stratosphere which cooled earths surface by 0.5 degreesin the following year

What are the risks of geo-engeering?

SO2 aerosol injections can lead to potential ozone loss in the stratosphere

Keith et al- model the use of calcute aerosols, which are effective in cooling and neuteralise stratosphere acidity preserving the ozone

Sahel increases droughts from lack of rainfall from geoengineering- Forcing the stratophereic aresols- 250k deaths and 10m refugees— Also 3-4 of the drirest summers in the N.Hemispheres