Bio/Biochem

Plasma membrane fluidity

Saturated: with their straight hydrocarbon chains, pack tightly together, making the membrane more rigid and less fluid

unsaturated: containing double bonds, introduce kinks in the chains, preventing tight packing and increasing membrane fluidity

Lipid Rafts: These rafts, enriched with cholesterol and sphingolipids, are more ordered and tightly packed, leading to a decrease in fluidity

Glycolysis

Function: glucose-2pyruvate-ATP

Importance: quick ATP production (anaerobically)

If Inhibited: decrease in energy (brain, RBC) build up of glucose

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

Function: pyruvate-Acetyl CoA

Importance: links glycolysis to Krebs

If inhibited: pyruvate build up, lactic acid build up, decrease in krebs activity

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs)

Function: Acetyl CoA- NADH,FADH2,GTP

Importance: supplies electron carriers for ATP production

If inhibited: decrease in ATP, accumulation of CoA and intermediates

Electron transport chain

Function: uses NADH/FADH2 makes ATP+H20

Importance: main ATP producer (aerobic)

If inhibited: major ATP decrease, organ failure, increase in reactive oxygen species

Glucogenesis

Function: makes glucose from non carbs (lactate,glycerol)

Importance: maintains blood sugar during fasting

If inhibited: hypoglycemia during fasting, fatigue, coma

Glycogenesis

Function: Stores glucose as glycogen

Importance: prevents hyperglycaemia (energy storage)

If inhibited: increase in blood glucose, less stored glucose

Glycogenolysis

Function: breaks down glycogen to glucose

Importance: releases glucose during fasting/exersise

If inhibited: hypoglycemia during fasting/exercise

Pentose phosphate pathway

Function: makes NADPH

Importance: NADPH=antioxidant

If inhibited: oxidative stress (RBC=anemia)

Fermentation

Function: pyruvate-lactate(anaerobic)

Importance: regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis in low O2

If inhibited: glycolysis halts in anaerobic tissues (muscle)

Hypopolarize

initial increase in cell membrane potential that occurs with the influx of sodium ions into the cell prior to hitting the threshold potential

Hyperpolarize

Occurs after re-polarization it specifically refers to the resting membrane potential being below the resting potential

Depolarize

An increase in cell membrane potential that results from sodium influx

Repolarize

Efflux of potassium through voltage-gated, potassium channels that open at the peak of the action potential this leads to a reduction in cell membrane potential

Agonist

A molecule that binds to a receptor and activates it (Morphine)

Antagonist

Molecule that binds to a receptor but blocks it (Naloxone)

FISH

Molecular technique that uses fluorescent probes which bind to parts of nucleic acid sequence. it is often used for finding specific features in a DNA sequence

Southern Blot

Molecular technique that identifies differences in DNA sequences

Western Blot

Used to identify differences in proteins

Karyotyping

Used to view metaphase chromosomes

Innate Immunity

Description: First, Fast, General defence

Key Players: Barriers, macrophages, neutrophils, NK cells

Adaptive immunity

Description: Specific response to a pathogen, slow

Key players: Bcells, Tcells (CD4,CD8), antibodies

Innate (humoral)

• Bcells produce antibodies

• Antibodies neutralize pathogen and mark for destruction

• Some because memory B cells for future response

Helper T cells (CD4) helper

Activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells

Cytotoxic T cells (CD8) killer

Kill infected cancerous cells

Regulatory T cells

Surprise immune response to prevent overreaction

Autoimmune diseases

Involve adaptive system attacking self-antigens

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death, used early to eliminated unwanted cells. May be blocked in cancer cells. Mitochondria plays a big role.

Ectoderm “Attracto-derm”

Brain,skin,eyes,hair,teeth

Mesoderm “mov-o-derm”

Muscles,bones,blood,heart,gonads

Endoderm “insid-o-derm”

GI tract,lungs,liver,bladder

Blood Flow Through Heart

“Right-Lungs,Left-Body”

Ra, rv, lungs, la, lv, body

Valve order

“Toilet paper my ass”

Tricuspid ra,rv

Pulmonary rv,lungs

Mitral la,lv

Aortic lv,body

Vessels Mnemonics

Arteries: Away from heart (PAD pulmonary artery deoxygenated)

Veins: Toward the heart (PVO pulmonary vein oxygenated)

Frameshift Mutation

Insertion or deletion, shifts reading frame, massive down stream change, severe

Nonsense mutation

Changes amino acid codon to stop codon, severe

Missense mutation

Changes one amino acid, some harmless, some disease causing

Silent mutation

No change, but may affect mRNA stability or splicing

G1

Cell grows makes proteins, and organelles

S

DNA is replicated sister chroma tits form

G2

More growth, prepares for mitosis, DNA is checked for errors

M

Cell divides nucleus and cytoplasm into two identical daughter cells

G0

Cell exits the cycle, non-dividing state

Prophase (mitosis)

Chromosomes condense, spindle fibres form, nuclear envelope dissolves

metaphase (mitosis)

Chromosomes lineup at the centre metaphase plate

Anaphase (mitosis)

Sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite sides

Telophase (mitosis)

New nuclei form, chromosomes de-condense

Cytokinesis (mitosis)

Cytoplasm divides, 2 genetically identical daughter cells

Isomerase

Restructure chemical formula

Hydrolase

Brake bonds by adding water

Oxidoreductase

Catalyze the removal of electrons and proton atoms

Transformation

Genetic material from environment into bacteria

Transaction

Nucleic acids transferred from viruses to cells

Conjugation

Exchange of nucleic acids between bacteria

Enhancer

Increases the expression of a particular gene

Keq > 1

Exergonic

Glycosylate

Attach a carbohydrate group to another molecule, usually a protein or lipid