Test 5

Nervous and Special Senses

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging: creates images of brain functions by scanning the brain while a person is performing activities, such as listening to music. By showing which area is more active, the activity and area of the brain is mapped

electroencephalogram

Used in neurofeedback studies, monitors the electrical activities of parts of the cerebrum to determine what areas of the brain are playing a role in conditions

Ancient Greek Medicine and anatomical structures of brain

Focused on ventricles of the brain as the location of the mental faculties in the brain.

• sensation and imagination in frontal/anterior cavities, intellectual thought in middle cavity, and memory is located in posterior cavity

• physical trauma and disease have been used to speak to the localization of brain functions

• modern medicine proves this wrong - ventricles filled with CSF

  • Vesalius proves they are filled with aqueous humor

• Vesalius notes ventricles are different from those of animals

Galen and On the Use of the Parts

More philosophical, demonstrate form, location, and function of parts of the human body reveal the providential character of Nature.

• nature does nothing in vain

• nature placed ventricle close to spinal cord and cerebellum for optimum function of mental faculties and for better communication

  • closer ventricles to the spinal cord that are harmed - more neuro damage

• ventricles held the psychic pneuma important to mental faculties of a human.

  • pneuma is airy instrument of soul and responsible for voluntary motion, sensation, rational thought and memory.

  • communicates sensation and voluntary motion to and from the ventricles through spinal cord and nerves

celi-, coel-, cel- 

abdominal cavity, cavity, hollow 

Aristotle and mental faculties 

human thought and reason are located in the heart but still thought mental faculties were damaged by damage to brain. 

• damaged brain is no longer able to cool the heart 

Central Nervous System (systema nervosum centrale) 

brain and spinal cord 

Cranium

dome-like structure of the skull that houses the brain

Encephalon (enkephalos)

whole brain or parts of the embryonic brain (encephal-)

• prosencephalon/forebrain: cerebrum, corpus callosum, limbic system

• mesencephalon/midbrain: smallest of 3 units, tectum, paired cerebral peduncles

• rhombencephalon/hindbrain: brain stem and cerebellum

Meninges (meninx, meningis)

membranes that envelop brain and spinal cord (mening-)

• dura matter (pachymeninx) is thick outer layer (dur-) → hard

• 2 thinner membranes are leptomeninges

  • arachnoid membrane is one of them (arachn-) → spider

  • membrane closest to the brain is called pia mater

  • (lept-) → thin, used for pia mater and arachnoid mater

• (pachy-) → thick, pachymeninx is the dura mater

Cerebrum (telencephalon - endbrain)

largest portion of brain, seat of consciousness and center of higher mental faculties such as memory, learning, reasoning, judgement, intelligence, and emotions.

• (cerebr-) → understanding, cerebrum

cerebral cortex (cortex cerebri)

outer layer of the cerebrum (cortic-)→ outer layer/bark

cerebellum

located below the occipital lobe, responsible for coordination and voluntary movements (cerebell-) → originally meant little cerebrum.

Brainstem (truncus encephali)

externally visible structure that connects the brain and spinal cord. Responsible for basic bodily functions such as breathing, heart rate, and body temperature (includes midbrain, pons, and medulla oblangata)

• most superior part called the mesencephalon

Pons 

rostral part of brainstem (pont-) → bridge-like structure of body. 

Medulla

caudal segment of brainstem, also called the myelencephalon.

• helps control vital process of heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure

  • medull- → used for bone marrow and inner part of organ

Parietal lobe

lobus parietalis; sensations of pain, touch, and temperature.

frontal lobe

lobus frontalis; linked to voluntary movement and personality

temporal lobe 

lobus temporalis; linked to hearing, taste, and smell 

occipital lobe

lobus occipitalis; linked to vision

Gyrus

circle or ring, each lobe contains these convolutions (gyr-)

fissure

deep groove or fissure

• (fissur-) → fissure and to split/cleave

• (find- fiss-, fid-) → fission, bifid

sulcus

furrow, anatomical groove associated with gyri of cerebrum. (sulc-) 

corpus callosum

connects hemispheres of cerebrum, literally means tough hard body.

limbic system (systema limbicum)

associated with emotions, behavior, long term memory, olfaction

• (limb- and limbus) - border-like structures

• amygdala: associated with social and emotional processes and memory (amydal-) → also means almond in addition to amygdala.

• Hippocampus: responsible for memory consolidation (hippocamp-), (hipp-) → horse

thalamus

ovoid-shaped collection of nuclei found deep inside brain responsible for processing sensory signals and most motor programs to and from cerebral cortex. (thalam-)  can also be used for inner room or chamber-like structures. 

Nucleus

a group of neuronal cell bodies that are clustered together

• nucle- → used for central organelle of cell, originally meant kernel

Ventricles

where CSF is generated continuously, are interconnected with each other and spinal cord, providing a pathway for CSF to move around brain and spinal cord. (ventricul-)

Cerebral Spinal Fluid (liquor cerebrospinalis)

supplies nutrients and removes waste products from CNS, provides a watery cushion to the CNS. (hydr- or hydrocephalus → excessive amounts of CSF in ventricles)

Gray matter 

made up of neuronal cell bodies and little myelinated tissue (poli-) → gray, gray matter of brain 

White matter

forms inner part of cerebrum; composed primarily of myelinated tissue (alb-) → white

Spinal Cord (medulla spinalis)

column of nervous tissue that connects the brain to the body (myel-)

Funiculus

divisions in white matter in the spinal cord (funicul-) → for divisions and also for rope/cord

Fascicle 

tracts of nerve fibers within each funiculus (fasciul-) → small bundle of longitudinal running fibers 

Vertebral column

collection of bones that protects the spinal cord.

• (not-, rhachi-, spin-) → back

• (chord-) → cord/tendon

• (spondyl-, vertebr-) → single bony segment of vertebral column

Peripheral Nervous System (systema nervorum periphericum)

composed of nerves outside the CNS

• nerv-, neur- → nerves; bundle of fibers (called axons) that convey sensory and motor impulses to and from brain and spinal cord.

Neuron

nerve cell; 3 main parts of body (somat-, som-, -some), dendrite/tree-like branched structure of neuron (dendr-), and axons/projections off of neuron (ax-)

Glial cells 

interstitial and supporting tissue of the nervous system. 

• oligodendrocytes are a type of gliocyte responsible for myelination of axon tracts in CNS and the myelinated axons of the PNS

• (gli-) → glue/glue cells 

Epineurum, perineurum, and endoneurum

delicate connective tissue that joins axon of peripheral nerves

• collection of endoneurium ensheathed by perineurieum and called a fasiculus.

• epineureum binds nerve fasciculi and vlood vessels.

  • all together one peripheral nerve.

Nerve root

first segment of a peripheral nerve leaving the spinal cord

• anterior root carrries efferent (motor) stimuli and the posterior root carries afferent (sensory) stimuli.

• (radic-, radicul-, rhiz-)

• (nerv/o) → nerve 

Nerve Branches

where nerve roots combine, forming a ramus (ram-) → branch like structure

• primary branch of a spinal nerve that carries both motor and sensory information.

plexus

network of nerves 

autonomic nervous system

part of PNS that regulates involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and digestion (sympathetic and parasympathetic).

• autonom- → self-controlling and functioning independently

Sympathetic Nervous System

primary function is to prepare a human for a stressful situation or emergency (fight or flight) 

• dilates pupils, increases heart rate, widens airways, increases circulation to skeletal muscles, decrease circulation to GI tract, increase glucose availability

• sympatheia - suffering/affected together 

parasympathetic nervous system

works alongside sympathetic nervous system being most active in ordinary, everyday conditions - counterbalances stress effects and symptoms

Hypothalamus

located beneath the thalamus, central controller of the preganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems - works with pituitary gland to regulate secretion of hormones

ganglion

a bundle of nerve cells that look like a tumor or cyst (gangl-) 

• can also be swelling on aponeurotic aspect of a tendon. 

Memory

mental registration, retention, and recollection of past experiences, sensations, or thoughts.

• (memor-, mnemon-) → memory

• (-mnesia) → memory disorders

  • paramnesia is a distorted or abnormal memory 

  • pseudomnesia: false memories 

  • anamnesia: recalling of memory 

  • amnesia: short/long term memory loss (lethe) 

lethe-

fatal, oblivion, forgetfulness 

sensation

an awareness of conditions inside or outside the body resulting from the stimulation of sensory receptors (sens-, sent-, sensor-) → sentient, sensory, sense

• sensation → (esthet-, esthesi-, -esthesia)

  • paresthesia is an abnormal sensation

  • hyperesthesia is excessive sensitivity to stimuli 

-algia 

painful sensation 

• paralgia is an abnormal sensation to pain 

• causalgia is a painful burning sensation 

• notalgia/dorsalgia is pain in the back 

Gnosia

perceptive faculty of recognizing persons, things, and forms

• gnost-, -gnosia, -gnosis: knowledge of sensations

• topagnosis is loss of ability to know site of a tactile sensation

  • top- → place, spot, or region

  • astereognosis is inability to distinguish the shape of objects by a sense of touch

    • stere- → solid or 3D

kinesis

movement

(kinesi-, kine-, -kinesia)

• dyskinesia: faulty movements or movement disorders

• bradykinesia: slow movements

Motor

(mot-) → motion/movement

Ataxia 

lack of coordination in movement 

• tax- : order and coordination 

apraxia

inability to perform an activity/purposeful movement

• prax-, -praxis, -praxia: activity, doing, and practice

Athetosis

a condition of constant involuntary movements that are slow, irregular, twisting, and snakelike that primarily occur in the upper extremities

Chorea

disorders that produce involuntary dancing, writhing, or jerking movements (chore-)

• huntington’s chorea is a neurodegenerative, autosomal dominant disease marked by choreoathetosis

• chore- → dance

Speech Pathologies

disorders of speech used to recognize presence of disorders of nervous system

• (-lalia) → speech disorders

• (phas-) → inability or difficulty

phas-, lal-, phras-, log-

speech (only lal), phrase , reason, word

Reading disorders

(lex) → reading, word, speech

• dyslexia: difficulting reading and interpreting written forms of communication

Coma 

deep sleep or state of unconsciousness (comat-) 

syncope

acute, transient loss of consciousness - fainting/cut short

sopor- , somn- , narc-

sleep/stupor

• insomnia is inability to sleep

• stupor is altered mental status state, decreased responsiveness to one’s environment

Letharg-

drowsiness

• lethargy is a state of mental sluggishness and drowsiness

Hypnosis 

a condition resembling sleep in which the objective manifestations of mind are more or less inactive 

(hypn-) → hypnosis and sleep 

(-agogic, -agogue) → leading or inducing 

(thanat-) → death

(oneir-) → dreams 

Tone

state of slight contraction of muscles that contributes to posture and function

• ton- → tension and stretching

Dystonia

movement disorders characterized by involuntary muscle contractions affecting movement

atony

lack of normal muscle tone and strength

opisthotonos 

condition of increaesd tone and spasms of back muscles causing one to bend backwards. 

• opisth- → backward or behind 

Spasm-, spast-

sudden involuntary muscle contraction

• spasticity is a movement disorder in which an abnormal increase in muscle tone interferes with movement.

Trem-, tremul-

tremor or shaking

• involuntary shaking or trembling of a body part that can appear at rest or with movement

sthen-

strength

• (-asthenia) means a condition where there is a lack of strength

• myasthenia gravis: autoimmune disease that affects the receptors at the neuromuscular synapses causing a rapid loss of strength

Paralysis 

to disable at a side, loss or impairmnet of motor function or sensation caused by injuries to peripheral nerves or to the CNS 

• (pleg-, plect-, -plexy, -plegia) → paralysis 

• paraplegia (paralysis of legs) often caused by lower spinal cord injury

• quadriplegia (4 limbs) often caused by upper spinal cord injury

stroke

cerebrovascular accident, infarct of brain due to disruption of blood flow - often causing hemiplegia

Palsy 

paralysis 

Paresis

partial or incomplete paralysis, for specific position or part.

Seizure

convulsion or transient disturbance of the brain’s function caused by abnormal discharge of electrical activity in the brain

• ictus: sudden attack of neurological symptoms/signs

  • (ict) → seizure or stroke 

Tonic-Clonic seizure 

grand mal seizure - hypertonicity in some parts and spasmodic alterations in others. 

• clonus: spasmodic alteration of muscle contraction between antagonist muscles 

• petit mal (little bad) seizures: that are localized and without convulsions and spasms 

epilepsy

disorder of seizures

• (leps-, lept-, -lepsy) → seizure

Mening-

membrane

encephal-

brain

hydr- 

water 

• hydrocephalus - excessive CSF in the ventricles of the brain 

radicul-

nerve root/root

myel-

spinal cord/bone marrow

poli-

gray matter, gray

• poliomyelitis is a viral infection causing inflammation of the brain and spinal cord

neur- 

nerve 

fibr-

filament or fiber

gli-

glue or glue cells

• glioma: neoplasm or tumor composed of neuroglial cells, glue cells

astr/o

star

• astrocytoma is a tumor the brain or spinal cord composed of astrocytes 

• cyt- → cell 

ependym- 

upper garment 

• ependymoma: tumor of the brain and spinal cord that arises from ependymal cells (CSF producing cells that line the ventricles and spinal cord) 

olig/o

few or scanty

• oligodendroglioma: tumor of oligodendrocytes - glial cells found along axon tracts that myelinate axons in the CNS.

  • dendr- → tree or tree like

traumatic brain injury (TBI)

any injury involving direct trauma to head accompanied by alterations in mental status or consciousness

concussion

TBI that results in loss of consciousness and or funtion due to impact of an object. (a shaking)

Hematoma

TBI that can cause a swelling of blood in the cranium 

• subdural is under dura mater and is venous 

• epidural is upon dura mater and is caused by disruption of an artery

Psychology

study of normal and abnormal mental processes

psychiatry

medical treatment of mental illnesses

psychotherapy

use of verbal or nonverbal techniques or mental exercises to treat mental illnesses

psych-, psyche 

mine and mental processes

psyche - spirit, breath, life, soul, mind , understanding, ghost 

Greek connection to psyche

• closely tied to breath and life of organism

• more than mental faculties and emotions, tied to bodily functions and physical impulses

• 3 types of insania: acute, longer, longest

  • Galen - pathos of psyche is an irrational impulse in us not amenable to reason (Affections of Soul and Errors the Soul), mental faculties understanding was often somatic.

• 4 humors closely associated with seasons

• link health and personality to constellations since that was related to seasons

  • choleric: irritable and quick tempered

  • phlegmatic: sluggish or dull

  • sanguine: optimistic and cheerful

  • melancholic: depressed and sad