Introduction to Political Geography: States, Boundaries, and International Cooperation

Political Geography

Study of the organization and spatial distribution of political phenomena.

State

Any of the political units forming a federal government OR Independent political unit holding sovereignty over a territory (country, nation).

Nation

Independent political unit holding sovereignty over a territory OR Community of people with a common culture and territory.

Nation-state

State whose territory coincides with that occupied by a distinct nation or people, or at least, whose population shares a general sense of cohesion and adherence to a set of common values.

Binational or multinational state

Contains more than one nation.

Part-nation state

Single nation dispersed across and predominant in two or more states.

Stateless nation

People without a state.

International boundaries

Lines that establish the limit of a state's jurisdiction and authority.

Natural (physical) boundaries

Based on recognizable physiographic features such as mountains, rivers and lakes.

Artificial (geometric) boundaries

Frequently delimited as sections of parallels or meridians.

Antecedent boundaries

Established before the area is well populated.

Subsequent boundaries

Established after the area has been settled.

Consequent (ethnographic) boundary

Drawn to accommodate existing cultural differences.

Superimposed boundary

Ignore existing cultural patterns.

Relic boundary

Marks a former boundary line.

Colonial boundaries

Arbitrary administrative divisions not based on meaningful cultural or physical lines.

Landlocked states

Negotiated use of facilities at a foreign port.

Waterbodies as boundaries

Boundaries that require agreement on their location, often complicated by changing river courses and the use of water resources.

Resource disputes

Conflicts between neighboring states over coveted resources located in border areas, which can include physical or cultural resources.

Physical Size

Refers to the dimensions of a state, with Russia being the world's largest country, affecting its stability and strength.

Shape

The geometric configuration of a state, which can influence its organization and effectiveness, with various types including compact, prorupt, elongated, fragmented, exclave, perforated, and enclave.

Location

Refers to both absolute and relative positioning of a state, affecting its economic advantages and geographic disadvantages.

Core area

The nucleus and main center of industry, commerce, population, political, and intellectual life within a state.

Nationalism

The identification with the state and acceptance of national goals, which strengthens the political system and integrates diverse groups.

Unifying Institutions

Organizations such as schools, armed forces, and sometimes a state church that promote cohesion within a state.

Centripetal Forces

Factors that promote state cohesion and integration among different groups within a population.

Forward-thrust capitals

Capitals that are deliberately sited in a frontier zone to promote development and control over a region.

Primate city

A city that is the most important and often the largest in a state, typically located in the core area.

Geographic disadvantage

A situation where a country's location limits its economic opportunities, such as being landlocked.

Economic advantages

Benefits that arise from a country's location, particularly if situated on major trade routes.

Diffusion of new ideas and technologies

The spread of innovations and knowledge that can be facilitated by a country's geographic location.

Absolute location

The exact position of a place on the Earth's surface, often defined by coordinates.

Relative location

The position of a place in relation to other locations, which can influence its significance.

Ministates

Very small sovereign states that may have unique advantages and disadvantages compared to larger states.

Asymmetric federalism

A federal system where different regions may have varying degrees of autonomy.

Transportation and communication

Key factors in the organization and administration of a state, impacting its cohesion and effectiveness.

Cultural resources

Resources that hold significance for cultural identity and heritage, often contested in border disputes.

Internationally significant resource

A resource that is important for multiple nations, often leading to disputes over its use.

Watersheds

Areas of land that drain into a particular waterbody, which can complicate boundary definitions.

Mountain crestlines

Natural features that can serve as boundaries but may not always align with political borders.

Religion

May compete with state for people's allegiance. Conflict between majority and minority faiths may destabilize social order. Opposing sectarian views within a single dominant faith may promote civil conflict.

Subnationalism

Feeling that one owes primary allegiance to a traditional group or nation rather than to the state.

Right to self-determination

The principle that a group has the right to determine its own political status.

Regionalism

Minority group identification with a particular region of a state rather than with the state as a whole.

Separatist movements

May express a desire for self-government or even separation from the rest of the country.

Regional autonomy

The desire for a region to govern itself independently from the central government.

Devolution

Decentralization of political control.

Ethnic cleansing

Tactic used to transform a multinational area into one containing only one nation, involving killing or forcible relocation of one traditional or ethnic group by a more powerful one.

Preconditions common to all separatist movements

Territory and nationality.

Common characteristics of separatist movements

Peripheral location and social and economic inequality.

Globalization

The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.

Transnational corporations

Companies that operate in multiple countries beyond their home country.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

Organizations that operate independently from the government and are typically non-profit.

Irredentism

Desire of a state to gain or regain territory inhabited by people who have historic or cultural links to the country.

Supranationalism

Associations of three or more states created for mutual benefit and to achieve shared objectives.

United Nations (UN)

An organization with 193 members in 2021 that provides a forum for countries to discuss international problems and regional concerns.

Interventionism

The policy of intervening in the affairs of other countries.

International jurisdiction over inalienable human rights

The authority of international law to govern human rights that cannot be surrendered.

International Law of the Sea

Four zones of diminishing control: Territorial sea of up to 12 nm, Contiguous zone of up to 24 nm, Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of up to 200 nm, and High seas beyond the EEZ.

Territorial sea

The area of sea up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline of a coastal state.

Exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

The area up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline where a state has special rights to the resources.

High seas

The parts of the ocean that are not included in the territorial sea or the EEZ, open to all states.

UN affiliates

Organizations associated with the UN, including the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Bank, International Labor Organization (ILO), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization (WHO), and World Trade Organization (WTO).

Economic Alliances

Alliances that address social, political, and cultural interests, including the European Union (E U), NAFTA, CAFTA, CARICOM, MERCOSUR, ASEAN, APEC, ECOWAS, and OPEC.

Members of the European Union (E U) as of July 2021

The specific countries that are part of the E U as of the date mentioned.

Formation of a coalition

The creation of an alliance in one geographic area stimulates the formation of another alliance by countries not included in the first.

Military alliances

Alliances based on the principle that unity brings strength, usually providing for mutual assistance in case of aggression.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

A military alliance that had 28 members as of 2020.

Political alliances

Alliances based on generalized mutual concerns or appeals to historic interest, such as the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organization of American States (O A S).

Redistricting/reapportionment

The process of adjusting electoral district boundaries to reflect population changes.

Electoral geography

The study of the delineation of voting districts and the spatial patterns of election results.

Gerrymandering

The practice of drawing legislative district boundaries to unfairly favor one political party over another.

Stacked gerrymandering

A technique of gerrymandering that involves concentrating opposition voters into a few districts.

Excess vote technique

A gerrymandering strategy that aims to waste votes of the opposition by over-concentrating them in a few districts.

Wasted vote strategy

A gerrymandering approach that dilutes the voting power of a particular group across multiple districts.

Political administrative units

The subdivisions of the U.S. into over 3000 counties, further divided into townships and special-purpose districts.

Inefficiency & duplication of effort

Problems arising from the fragmentation of political power in administrative units.

Zoning ordinances

Regulations that govern land use and development within a municipality.

Environmental Justice

The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

Nation-states

States occupied by a distinct nation or people, such as Poland and Slovenia.

Multinational state

A state that encompasses multiple nationalities, like Switzerland, where a common ethnicity, language, or religion is not necessary for nationalism.

Discrepancies Between Ethnic Groups and National Boundaries in Africa

Cultural boundaries were ignored by European colonial powers, resulting in significant ethnic diversity in nearly all African countries and conflicts between countries over borders.

New Nations

Since 1993, sixteen new countries have been admitted to the United Nations, including new countries like South Sudan and Timor-Leste, and older countries like Andorra and Switzerland seeking UN recognition.

Shapes of States

The sizes of the countries should not be compared as each is drawn on a different scale.

Canada's Migratory Capital

Kingston was chosen as the first capital of the united Province of Canada, with government functions later relocated to Montreal, and eventually shifting between Toronto and Quebec, before Ottawa became the capital of the Confederation of Canada in 1867.

Landlocked South Sudan

South Sudan will have to negotiate with other countries to gain access to the sea, with proposed pipelines potentially traversing as many as three different countries.

Disputed Boundary Between Argentina and Chile

The treaty establishing the boundary between Argentina and Chile preceded adequate exploration and mapping, leaving its precise location in doubt; the last remaining territorial dispute was settled in an accord signed in late 1998.

Basque Region Conflict

The Basque region straddles the border between Spain and France, where militant separatists in the Euskadi ta Askatasuna (ETA) seek the establishment of an independent state for the Basque region.

Rumaila Oil Field

One of the world's largest oil reservoirs, Rumaila straddles the Iraq-Kuwait border, with Iraqi grievances over Kuwaiti drilling partly responsible for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.

Canadian-U.S. Railroad Discontinuity

Refers to the discontinuity in the railroad system between Canada and the United States.

Independent railway systems

Railway systems developed by Canada and the United States connecting their prairie regions with their national cores.

Discontinuity at the border

The pattern that emerged due to the political boundary restricting spatial interaction between adjacent territories.

200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

Maritime zones claimed by coastal states that extend 200 nautical miles from their coastline.

Consequences of the EEZ concept

Three important consequences: (1) islands gained new significance; (2) countries gained new neighbors; (3) EEZ lines resulted in overlapping claims.

Maritime boundaries of the United States

The United States has maritime boundaries with countries in Asia, South America, and Europe, despite sharing continental borders only with Canada and Mexico.

European Union (EU) member countries

As of July 2021, the EU includes Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Republic of Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.

EU candidate countries

Countries in talks to join the EU include Albania, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

NATO military alliance

As of 2020, NATO had 28 members.

NATO membership applicant countries

Current applicants for NATO membership include Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Montenegro, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

Geographic shifts in congressional apportionment

Illustrates population movements to the South and West between 1930 and 2010.