The Cold War Begins (Ch. 34)

What was Truman’s background?

no college education; experience in state politics, WWI, and U.S. Senate; managed to keep hands clean despite involvement with political machines

What was Truman’s character?

initially humble when faced with postwar struggles, but grew to be cocky and arrogant

what were relations with the Soviet Union after the war?

conference at Tehran had cleared the air somewhat, but there were questions about the postwar fates of Germany, Eastern Europe, and Asia

Yalta conference

meeting of Fraknlin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin in February 1945, laying the foundations for the postwar division of power in Europe: plans for the UN; Eastern European countries were meant to have free elections (quickly broken); concessions to Stalin in Asia

what were Roosevelt’s motives for encouraging Russian interference in Asia as part of the Yalta conference?

motives: reduce American casualties, fearing retaliation for atomic bomb, by sending Stalin to Asia and giving him some Japanese and Chinese possessions in return

how were Roosevelt’s motives received?

critics: Roosevelt betrayed Chiang Kai-Shek by giving Manchuria to Stalin, undermining Chinese morale, contributing to Chiang’s overthrow by the communist; Poland and other East European countries were “sold out.”

defenders: Stalin could have taken more of Asia, the conference limited his ambitions; Stalin did also promise to support free elections in Eastern Europe, and he was the one who broke that promise + America couldn’t go to war to make him uphold it

what were the long-term impacts of America’s grand strategy in WWII?

leaving most of the fighting in Europe to the Russians on the eastern front, delaying the second front until D-day, guaranteeing that the Soviet would control much of eastern and central Europe → this resulted in relatively low casualty rates, but many broken promises from the Soviets

Describe historical Soviet-US relations.

many mutual suspicions; capitalism and communism were historically hostile social philosophies; US refused to recognize Bolshevik revolutionary government until it was 16 years old; US was hesitant to open up second front, resulting in more losses for Soviets in Eastern Europe; Soviet wasn’t included in atomic bomb development; US approved reconstruction loans to Britain but denied Soviets, canceled lend-lease bill

How did visions of the postwar world differ?

Stalin aimed to guarantee the security of the Soviet Union; wanted friendly governments along western border and maintain an extensive sphere of influence; world’s leading communist country.

Americans thought “sphere of influence” was an empire. Clashed with Franklin Roosevelt’s vision of “open world”- deconlonized, demilitarized, democratized, organizations for global peace.

What are similarities between the Soviet Union and the US?

both isolated from world affairs until WWII (US by choice, Soviets rejected by other powers); history of conducting a kind of “missionary” diplomacy, exporting their individual political doctrines to the world

Why was confrontation inevitable?

The wartime alliance was of forgotten, misbegotten necessity; once Hitler fell, rivalry between despotic, communist Russia and capitalist, democratic America were all but inevitable.

What was the Cold War?

The forty-five year diplomatic tension between the US and the Soviet Union that divided much of the world into polarized camps, capitalist against communist. Most of the international conflicts during that period, particularly in the developing world, can be traced to the competition between the United States and Soviet Union.

What were the American goals for a postwar world?

Roosevelt’s “open world;” Atlantic Charter proclaimed for all nations the rights to self-determination, and free access to trade, while committing to an organization designed to ensure human rights

What was the Bretton Woods Conference?

meeting of Western allies to establish a postwar international economic order to avoid crises like the one that spawned WWII → led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, designed to regulate currency levels and provide aid to underdeveloped countries

How did American actively shape the world order after WWII?

the conflict laid waste to all the traditional great powers, allowing the US to emerge robust; took charge in creating the bodies outlined in the Bretton Woods Conference + General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reducing trade barriers among member nations and helping to form the basis of the spread of economic globalization.

Who wasn’t included in this open world?

the emerging Cold War conflict meant that the Soviets and those within their sphere of influence would largely decline to participate in many of the new institutions bc America was spearheading them

How did the UN differ from the League of Nations?

UN began to be established before the war’s conclusion, to capitalize on the wartime spirit and insulate planning from divisive issues of peace settlements, while League was established at the end

League → any party could veto a dispute; UN → realistically disputed that no member of the Security Council (dominated by Big Five) could have action taken without consent

League → big power conflict; UN → big power cooperation

UN → General Assembly controlled by smaller countries

League → not well received by Americans; UN → good reception + Senate approval bc it provided safeguards for American sovereignty

What were the UN’s initial successes?

helped preserve peace in Iran, Kashmir, and other trouble spots; helped create Jewish state of Israel; UN Trusteeship Council guided former colonies to independence. UNESCO, FAO, WHO

What was to be done about atomic technology?

US delegate called for UN agency free from great-power veto with worldwide authority over use and research; Soviet said that it should all be outlawed; Truman said it would be wrong to throw away power until we were sure everyone else did the same; Soviets unfortunately felt the same way and used veto power

What did the Allies decide to do with Germany?

believed Nazism had to be cut out of German body politic → punish Nazi leaders for war crimes; Nuremberg war crimes trial: highly publicized proceedings against former Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity, leading to several executions and long prison sentences

How were the Nuremberg trials criticized by Americans?

victims were tried for offenses that weren’t clear-cut crimes when the war began

How did the Allies disagree about Germany?

Americans thought that an industrialized Germany was a brutal aggressor, first wanted to dismantle German factories; Soviets denied American economic assistance + wanted to rebuild using German reparations → both these desires clashed with the reality that an industrial, healthy Germany economy was necessary for Europe recovery

What ended up happening to Germany?

Germany and Austria divided into four military occupation zones, each assigned to one of the Big Four Allies; Western Allies promoted idea of a reunited Germany. Communists responded by tightening grip on Eastern zone → Germany looked like it would be indefinitely divided. West Germany eventually became an independent country, wedded to the west; East Germany + Poland + Hungary became nominally independent “satellite” States, bound to the Soviet Union and disappearing behind the “iron curtain.”

What happened to Berlin?

Also split into four; Soviets tried to starve out Allies by choking off all rail and highway access to Berlin; became a very symbolic issue

What was the Berlin airlift?

Year-long mission of flying food and supplies to blockaded West Berliners, whom the Soviet Union cut off from access to the West in the first major crisis of the Cold War; vivid demonstration of determination to honor commitments in Europe; blockaded eventually lifted; separate governments of two Germanys established soon after

What happened in Iran?

Soviet wanted to secure oil concessions similar to those held by Brits and Americans, Stalin broke an agreement to remove his troops from Iran’s northernmost province, which the USSR had occupied during WWII → instead used the troops to aid a rebel movement → backed down after Truman’s protest

What was the “psychological Pearl Harbor?”

Moscow enacted hard-line policies → Stalin seemed to refuse all partnership; all partnership goodwill evaporated

What was the containment doctrine?

America’s strategy against the Soviet Union based on ideas of George Kennan. Soviet Union and communism declared to be expansionist and had to be stopped through military and political pressure → guided American foreign policy throughout Cold War

What was Truman’s first dramatic move?

realized that heavily burdened Britain could no longer bear load of defending Greece against communist pressures, but if Greece fell, Turkey would too → Mediterranean would pass into Soviet Union → Truman Doctrine

What was the Truman Doctrine?

Truman’s universal pledge of support for any people fighting any communist or communist-inspired threat. Truman presented the doctrine to Congress in 1947 in support of his request for $400 million to defend Greece and Turkey against Soviet-backed insurgencies

What were criticisms of the Truman Doctrine?

claimed it promised unlimited support to any despot claiming to be resisting Communist aggression; needlessly polarized the world into pro-Soviet and pro-American camps; misconstrued Soviet threat as primarily military

What were defenses of the Truman Doctrine?

president feared a revived isolationism → exaggerated Soviet threat

What were challenges in Western Europe?

France, Italy, Germany still suffering from hunger and economic chaos; could be taken over from the inside by Communist parties exploiting hardship

What was the Marshall Plan?

Massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Europe, intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power

sparked by Marshall’s invitation: if the European powers worked out this plan, the US would provide substantial financial assistance → they did, influenced eventual creation of European Union

How was the Marshall Plan meant to apply to the Soviets?

the same deal was given to the Soviets and allies, but Americans worried about misuse of plan, so terms were made difficult to accept + Soviets didn’t accept it, calling it a “capitalist trick”

What were American sentiments towards the Marshall Plan?

called for spending a lot of money, in addition to the money given to UN organizations, a lot of which benefited Europe; a Soviet-sponsored communist coup awakened legislators to reality

What were the effects of the Marshall Plan?

a success! Communist parties lost ground in Italy and France, and American money significantly revived the economy

What was the issue surrounding Israel?

US wanted access to Middle Eastern oil for US economy and European recovery, but Arab oil countries opposed creation of Israel in Palestine; Truman defied this and recognized Israel, mainly because of humanitarian sympathy for Holocaust survivors + preempt Soviet influence in Jewish state → vastly complicated US relations with Arab world

What was the initial American response to the prospect of war?

unification of armed services; creation of a huge new national security apparatus; National Security Act (Department of Defense); National Security Council; CIA; “Voice of America” radio broadcasts behind the iron curtain; military draft shaped society and education

How did Western Europe unite in response to the Soviet threat?

NATO

What was NATO?

military alliance of Western European powers and the United States + Canada to defend from the common threat of the Society Union → European unity and American internationalism

Why did the US decide to join NATO?

strengthen policy of containing the Soviet Union, providing a framework for the reintegration of Germany into a European family, reassuring European powers that US wasn’t going to abandon them; “keep the Russians out, the Germans down, and Americans in”

Why was NATO significant?

dramatic departure from American diplomatic convention, a gigantic boost for European unification; a significant step in the militarization of Cold War; cornerstone for all Cold War American policy toward Europe

How was reconstruction conducted in Japan?

General MacArthur went ahead with democratization of Japan despite Soviet protest; Japanese cooperated well to end occupation; new constitution provided for women’s equality, introduced western-style democratic government, renounced militarism, paved way for phenomenal economic recovery

What was happening in China?

A bitter civil war raged for years between Nationalists and communists; US halfheartedly supported nationalists, but corruption eventually corroded nationalist confidence and Nationalist China collapsed, with communist armies sweeping south; a depressing defeat for America and allies → Republicans were bitter, criticizing Truman and suspecting foul play from Democrats

Why did the H-bomb need to be developed?

Soviets exploded atomic bomb earlier than thought possible; US needed to keep up despite anxious reservations from scientists → competitive nuclear arms race spurred on by massive state support for defense-related scientific research in both countries; peace achieved only through mutual terror

How was Korea divided between the powers?

Soviet troops accepted Japanese surrender north of 38th parallel on the Korean peninsula; American troops had done likewise south of the line; both groups professed to want reunification and independence of Korea → set up rival regimes

Describe the invasion of South Korea.

both superpowers had withdrawn their forces; North Korea invaded South Korea, forcing military to retreat to a tiny area, pressed against the sea.

How did the US respond to the invasion of South Korea?

Truman thought it provided proof of a fundamental premise in ”containment doctrine” (US needed to fight communism actively!) → expansion of American military - implementation of NSC-68

What was the NSC-68?

National Security Council recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peacetime war forces: new militarization of American foreign policy, reflected assumption of limitless postwar possibility, that the economy could bear it → wasn’t implemented until Korea invasion

How did Americans begin their involvement in the Korean War?

Soviet absence from Security Council → condemnation of NK as aggressor, called on UN members to give every assistance to restore peace; Truman ordered American air and naval units; MacArthur’s Japan occupation groups went to go support SK too

How was US involvement in the Korean War framed as an international intervention?

officially participating in UN “police action”; other nations did contribute significant troops; US provided a vast majority, though, and the head of the operation, MacArthur, took orders from US, not Security Council

How were the foundations for a “long boom” laid?

postwar economic order + Cold War spending and investment

Describe the new anti-red chase.

fear of communist spies;Truman’s loyalty review program where organizations had to prove loyalty, investigating federal employees; states also security-conscious: loyalty oaths for teachers; could Americans enjoy freedoms in a Cold War climate?

What was the House Un-American Activities Committe?

investigatory body to root out “subversion", expose communist influence, particularly through trial of Alger Hiss, who defending right to defend himself against communist accusations; headed by Nixon

What was the impact of Soviet spies?

leaked atomic bomb research and data; Rosenberg execution was met with sympathy + diminished hostilities

Describe local anti-communist movements and sentiments.

increased social freedom and agitation for civil rights, textbooks in schools, debtors & drinkers & homosexuals were all alleged to be security risks

How did Americans and legal agencies eventually realize that this was a witch hunt?

Truman vetoed McCarran Internal Security Bill, which would the president to arrest and detain suspicious people during internal security emergencies; critics said it was like police state, concentration camp; Republicans enacted the bill anyway

Who was Joseph McCarthy?

accused Democrats of supporting communists; McCarthyism → vitriolic, fear-mongering anti-communism, used to baselessly accuse high-ranking government officials and other Americans of conspiracy with communism; damage to American traditions of fair play and free speech

How did McCarthyism damage foreign services and relations?

damaged America’s international reputation for fair and open democracy at a moment when it was important to earn support of Western Europe; got rid of a ton of important Asian specialists to advise future presidents

What were the Army-McCarthy hearings?

accused members of the army of communist ties; exposed senator’s extremism and led to his eventual disgrace

How did the Cold War affect religious beliefs and sentiments?

theologians cast it as a battle between good and evil; Niebuhr (clergyman) was against fascism, communism, and pacifism and divided the world into “children of light” vs. “children of darkness”; atheistic communism vs. the “American Way”; Niehbur’s realism contrasted with the more crusading spirit of conservative Christian movements

What were other societal influences of the Cold War?

radical voices in unions, universities, churches, civic organizations were muzzled; civil rights advocates were slandered as communists

What was Executive Order 9981?

Truman’s order to desegregate armed forces bc election-year calculations, pressure from civil rights advocates, competition with the Soviets for international support meant American had to live up to democracy

How were Americans affected by economic uncertainty?

joblessness and insecurity → higher suicide rate, lower marriage rate, fewer children; people worried that the war had only temporarily lifted economic stagnation; initial postwar years seemed to confirm returning Great Depression suspicions

What was the Taft-Hartley Act?

over Truman’s vigorous veto, weakened many of Labor’s New Deal gains by banning the closed shop and other strategies that helped union organize; required noncommunist vote purged union movement from active organizers

What was Operation Dixie?

failed effort by the CIO after WW II to unionize Southern workers, especially in textile industries

What sector of the economy was growing? What did this mean for unions?

the more rapidly growing service sector of the economy proved much more difficult to organize than assembly-line workers; organized private-sector workers would continue to play a role, but peaked in 1950 and then began a long decline

What was the Employment Act of 1946?

from Democratic admin, legislation declaring that the government’s economic policy should aim to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, as well to keep inflation low ; Council of Economic Advisers to provide president with data

What was the GI Bill?

(Servicemen’s Readjustment Act), helped returning WWII soldiers reintegrate into civilian life by securing loans to buy homes + farms + set up small businesses + tuition and stipends for college + job training programs; intended to cushion blow of returning servicemen on employment market + nurture postwar economy

Who were the candidates in the election of 1948?

Republicans supported Dewey rather than “high-tax Truman;’ Democrats didn’t really support Truman anymore → Eisenhower a strong candidate bc civil rights, despite southern opposition; Truman’s nomination split the party wide-open: Southern “Dixiecrats” nominated a state governor instead; Henry Wallace nominated by new Progressive party (disgruntled New Dealers, pacifists, liberals, communist-fronters) and took a Soviet-friendly line

What were the results of the election?

Democrats were split three ways, so it seems Dewey would win; Truman went around giving speeches and lashing out at Taft-Harley law, whipping up support for civil rights, labor benefits, health insurance; Truman still won

What was Truman’s “Fair Deal”?

extensive social program; Republicans and southern Democrats kept much of his vision from being enacted, except raising minimum wage, providing for more public housing, and extending old-age insurance to more beneficiaries under Social Security Act

Describe the postwar economic boom.

After 1950, path of sustained growth for two decades, increase in national income, wealthiest country in the world; paved the way for success of civil rights movement, funded vast new welfare programs like Medicare, gave Americans confidence to exercise unprecedented international leadership in Cold War era

Describe new cultural standards and the development of the middle class.

people wanted more stuff, size of the middle class grew rapidly; more employment for female workers than ever before, most new jobs created went to women → eventual feminist revolt bc clash as culture glorified traditional female roles as women went to work

How did the war stimulate the postwar economy?

US used war crisis to fire up smokeless factories and rebuild depression-plagued economy

How did extensive military budgets fuel the prosperity of the 50s and 60s?

massive appropriations for Korean War, critics spoke of a “permanent war economy,” defense spending → developments in aerospace, plastics, electronics

How did cheap energy feed the economic boom?

American and European companies controlled the flow of abundant petroleum kept prices low; highways, air-conditioning, more electricity-generating capacity

How did productivity benefit from the postwar boom?

most school-age children were in school; productivity increased at an average rate of more than 3 percent per year

What were changes in the nation’s basic economic structure?

work force shifted out of agriculture, which had new productivity gains because costly machinery that required agribusinesses; less farmers but much more production

How was the population redistributed after WWII?

high rates of migration; families were split up and felt the strain; new popularity of child-rearing books; friendships were hard to sustain → high loneliness; growth of Sunbelt

What was the Sunbelt?

crescent through American South and Southwest experiencing terrific population and productivity expansion during WWII, eclipsing the old Northeast Frostbelt; new frontier for Americans after WWII, people came in search of jobs and better climate and lower taxes

Describe the economic war and shifts in political life resulting from the Sunbelt’s development.

federal dollars supported development, though South and West politicians called for government spending cuts; North tried to rally political support again; all future presidents came from Sunbelt, growing congressional representation

Describe the rush to the suburbs.

Other industrial countries struggled to rebuild war-ravaged cities; government policies in US encouraged movement away from urban centers; FHA and VA made it more economically attractive to own a home in the suburbs, new highways, tax deductions for interest payments on home mortgages → huge growth of suburb population

What’s Levittown?

Suburban communities with mass-produced tract houses built in the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas; inhabited by white middle-class people who fled the cities in search of homes to buy for their growing families

How did suburbanization foster segregation?

realtors couldn’t use “racial reasons” to exclude black buys, but could pass zoning laws that discouraged low-income housing and maintained racially homogenous neighborhoods; “white flight” to suburbs hollowed out inner cities, especially in Northeast and Midwest, leaving them “black, brown, and broke” as taxpaying businesses also fled; migrating blacks from South filled up inner city neighborhoods

What was redlining, and what was the impact of this practice?

classifying neighborhoods based on their perceived risk to lenders; ostensibly based strictly on financial considerations, serving as a covert form of racial discrimination → fed multigenerational wealth gap between blacks and whites; limited mobility out of inner cities

What was the postwar baby boom?

demographic explosion from births to returning soldiers and others who had put off starting families during the war, forcing the expansion of schools and universities; followed by a sharp drop, so that immigration was required to maintain current population

What were the effects of the boom-bust cycle of births?

as the oversize postwar generation grew to maturity, schools swelled and then closed, employing and then unemploying teachers; as boomers matured, they provided markets for things they needed at that stage in development, like canned food, rock music, jeans, employment, and finally, another round of babies once they reached middle age; when they retired, they strained social security and Medicare systems