CHAPTER 6-10

CHAPTER 6

RATIONALISM

while agreeing with the value of sensory data,_________ also postulated an active mind capable of discovering and comprehending principles and concepts that are not present in sensory data.

rationalists

God, matter, and mind were all three are merely different manifestations of the same substance and cannot be distinguished from one another.

Baruch(Benedict) Spinoza (1632- 1677)

Spinoza believed that everything in the world, including humans, included both material and conscious elements, but that the sole basic truth was

KNOWING GOD

For Spinoza, to understand the laws of nature was to understand God. Spinoza embraced __________, or a doctrine which identifies God with the universe, or regards the universe as a manifestation of God.

pantheism

For Spinoza, the mind and the body were like two sides of a coin. Even though the two sides are different, they are two aspects of the same coin. Thus, the mind and body are inseparable; anything happening to the body is experienced as emotions and thoughts; and emotions and thoughts influence the body which later we called

psychophysical double aspectism.

God is nature, and nature is lawful. Humans are part of nature, and therefore, human thoughts and behavior are lawful; that is, they are _______________

determined.

__________ strongly disagreed with Locke's assertion that all ideas originate from sensory experience. _________ stated that the mind already possesses the potential to have ideas and that this potential is fulfilled by sensory experience.

Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz

With the aid of the newly invented microscope, Leibniz could see that life exists everywhere, even where the naked eye cannot perceive it. He believed that the division of things into living or nonliving was absurd. Instead, he concluded that everything was living. The universe consisted of an infinite number of life units called

monads

rejected Descartes's interactionism because it is impossible for something physical to cause something mental. Leibniz also rejected Malebranche's occasionalism because he thought that it was untenable to believe that the mind and body were coordinated through God's continuous intervention. In place of interactionism and occasionalism, Leibniz proposed a

psychophysical parallelism based on the notion of preestablished harmony

Leibniz called perceptions that occurred below the level of awareness

petites perceptions

As petites perceptions accumulate, their combined force is eventually enough to cause conscious awareness, or what Leibniz called

apperception.

Leibniz also introduced the concept of __________ into psychology which is the border between unconscious and conscious mind

limen, or threshold,

Thomas Reid was of the opinion that we should be able to acknowledge the physical world in its current state because

it makes common sense to do so.

To Reid, our sensations not only accurately reflect reality but also do so immediately. The belief that the world is as we immediately experience it is called

direct realism

Reid hypothesized the existence of _______ To explain a variety of observable aspects of consciousness.

mental faculties

Faculty psychology is the idea that the mind is separated into faculties, or sections, and that each of these faculties are assigned to certain mental tasks

true

kant said that there are various categories of thought that are _________, and that those categories modify the information received from the________.

innate, senses.

according to kant, What we consciously experience is influenced by the combined influences of the many types of __________ as well as the _____________

sensory input, innate categories of thought.

Kant also attempted to rescue ethics from what the empiricists had provided—utilitarianism. For Kant, it was not enough to say that certain experiences are good and others are not; he asked what rule or principle was being applied to our feelings that made them desirable or undesirable. He called the rational principle that governs (or should govern) moral behavior the ________________, according to which, "I should never act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law"

categorical imperative

Kant was of the opinion that psychology could not be a science because he considered that subjective experience could not be measured with the same level of accuracy as other types of experience. He did, however, think that studying human behavior might be done in a way that was beneficial, and he dubbed the study of human behavior __________________

"anthropology."

Hegel shared Spinoza's belief that everything in the universe is connected to one another. Hegel believed that there was only one real knowledge, which he referred to as the

Absolute,

Hegel was of the opinion that the human intellect developed through a process known as ___________, which for him involved a thesis (an idea) interacting with its antithesis (the opposite of that idea) in order to produce a synthesis (the result of the interaction). He believed that this process was responsible for the advancement of the human intellect

dialectic

Herbart's system has been referred to as ___________ because he believed that ideas had the power to either attract or repel other ideas, depending on their compatibility. Ideas tend to attract similar or compatible ideas, thus forming complex ideas

psychic mechanics

It is possible for an idea to cross the threshold between the unconscious and the conscious mind if that idea is compatible with the ideas making up the apperceptive mass. Herbart is also considered to be the ___________________

first educational psychologist

CHAPTER 7

ROMANTICISM AND EXISTENTIALISM

romantics placed an emphasis on ____________ and had a fair distrust of both science and philosophers who regarded humans as merely the products of experience, as machine-like beings, or as beings who were entirely rational.

inner AND personal experience

is referred to as the "father" of modern romanticism.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

He had the belief that people are born pure and decent which we call ______ but that they become contaminated as a result of society.

(noble savage)

Rousseau held the belief that humans had both an individual will and a ___________, and that in order for a government to function well, its citizens must deny their own individual wills

general will

Johann Goethe thought of existence as a series of decisions to be made between ___________(such as good and evil).

opposing forces

He was of the opinion that the _________ was one that was driven by one's passions and resulted in personal growth.

ideal existence

he was of the opinion that the physical sciences, despite their ability to effectively supply helpful information about the physical world, are of limited utility when it comes to comprehending human beings.

Johann Goethe

in the tradition of Kant, made a distinction between the noumenal world, which he defined as "things in themselves,

Arthur Schopenhauer

Schopenhauer referred to the concept that Kant referred to as the noumenal world as the universal will. When it is actualized in a single human being, the universal will transforms into the will of the______________, which is the most potent driving force behind human action.

individual to survive

Schopenhauer believed that life was a never-ending cycle of satisfying one's demands while simultaneously generating new ones.

true

he said that Intelligent species suffer more than less intelligent animals do due to the fact that intelligent organisms are more conscious of their own need. The only thing that satiating our needs accomplishes is to put off death, which is unavoidable.

Arthur Schopenhauer

Needs can be_____________ into activities such as music, painting, and poetry. Schopenhauer's philosophical ideas had a significant impact on Freud's development of the psychoanalytic theory.

sublimated

was another school of thought that developed as a response to the Enlightenment. They emphasized the importance of finding purpose in one's life, having the freedom to make one's own choices, having an open mind, having personal responsibility, and being an original individual.

Existentialism

For existentialists, the most important aspects of humans are their personal, ____________of life and the choices they make in light of those interpretations. Like the romanticists, the existentialists viewed personal experience and feeling as the most valid guides for one's behavior.

subjective interpretations

widely recognized as the pioneer of the existential philosophical school.

Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

Soren was of the opinion that people were inhibited from having intimate, personal contact with God due to the influence of rationalistic philosophy, science, and organized religion. Such a connection can't be founded on reason or evidence, but on ____________ alone.

faith

For Kierkegaard, the only truth is _______________that is, truth that exists as a personal belief. Furthermore, the existence of God cannot and need not be proved by rational argument; it can only be taken on faith.

subjective truth—

kierkegaard offers a stage theory of what he calls personal freedom. ___________ is the first stage. At this stage, the person takes pleasure in a variety of experiences but does not yet actively express their freedom. Next stage towards personal freedom is Ethical Stage, the individual is capable of making ethical decisions, but in order to do so, they consult the ethical principles established by others. They are still not recognizing and acting on their full personal freedom to choose a path for themselves. Kierkegaard referred to the highest level of existence as the religious stage At this stage, the person recognizes his or her freedom and chooses to enter into a personal relationship with God.

Aesthetic Stage

kierkegaard offers a stage theory of what he calls personal freedom. Aesthetic Stage is the first stage. At this stage, the person takes pleasure in a variety of experiences but does not yet actively express their freedom. Next stage towards personal freedom is ________________, the individual is capable of making ethical decisions, but in order to do so, they consult the ethical principles established by others. They are still not recognizing and acting on their full personal freedom to choose a path for themselves. Kierkegaard referred to the highest level of existence as the religious stage At this stage, the person recognizes his or her freedom and chooses to enter into a personal relationship with God.

Ethical Stage

kierkegaard offers a stage theory of what he calls personal freedom. Aesthetic Stage is the first stage. At this stage, the person takes pleasure in a variety of experiences but does not yet actively express their freedom. Next stage towards personal freedom is Ethical Stage, the individual is capable of making ethical decisions, but in order to do so, they consult the ethical principles established by others. They are still not recognizing and acting on their full personal freedom to choose a path for themselves. Kierkegaard referred to the highest level of existence as the _______________________ At this stage, the person recognizes his or her freedom and chooses to enter into a personal relationship with God.

religious stage

According to Nietzsche, the___________is the fundamental human motivation, and it is satisfied when a person acts in accordance with how they feel.

will to power

According to Nietzsche, science, religion, rationalism, and empiricism, all work to curb irrationality and, as a result, hinder the development of human _______

potential.

Nietzsche held that there are two major aspects of human nature, the

Apollonian and the Dionysian.

The Apollonian aspect of human nature represents our __________—our desire for tranquility, predictability, and orderliness.

rational side

The Dionysian aspect of human nature represents our ____________our attraction to creative chaos and to passionate, dynamic experiences.

irrational side

According to Nietzsche, the best art and literature reflect a _________of these Apollonian and the Dionysian, and the best life reflects controlled passion

fusion

Nietzsche maintains that there is no such thing as a universal truth; rather, there are just unique points of view. There are a lot of parallels that can be drawn between postmodernism and Nietzsche's perspective on history.

true

Nietzsche referred to people who had the guts to live their lives in accordance with their own values, so elevating themselves above conventional morality, as ___________. theyare always changing and evolving into something different from what they were in the past as they take risks and experiment with life.

"supermen" (higher men).

CHAPTER 8

PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOPHYSICS

Experimental psychology emerged from extensive research of sensory perception and motor reflexes.

PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOPHYSICS

Afterward, researchers dove deep into the human sensory apparatus and nervous system.

PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOPHYSICS

Bell and Magendie made the discovery that certain nerves are specialized to convey sensory information from the muscles of the body to the brain, while other nerves are designed to carry sensory information in the other direction, from the brain to the muscles of the body. Often termed as

Bell-Magendie Law.

Johannes Müller discovered that each sensory nerve was specialized to produce a given form of ________, which in turn produced a specific type of ____. In other words, each sensory nerve was responsible for producing a feedback loop.

energy, feeling.

For instance, the experience of light will be produced whenever the optic nerve is activated, regardless of the method used. The same may be said for the entirety of the body's other sensory nerves. The discovery made by Müller is referred to as the

Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies.

Although Müller claimed that various nerves contain their own specific energy, he did not think that all the sense organs are equally sensitive to the same type of stimulation. Rather, each of the types of sense organs is maximally sensitive to a certain type of stimulation. Müller called this "specific irritability," and it was later referred to as

adequate stimulation

The most significant implication of Müller's doctrine for psychology was that the nature of the _______________, not the nature of the physical stimulus, determines our sensations. Müller's findings underscored that we are never conscious of objects in the physical world but of various sensory impulses in the brain linked to those real objects. It follows then that our knowledge of the physical world must be limited to the types of sense receptors we posses

central nervous system

Considered to be the premier scientist of the 19th century. He took a stance contrary to the idea of vitalism espoused by his master Müller and other people.

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)

For Helmholtz, nothing was beyond scientific investigation. Ignoring the contention that nerve impulses are too fast to be measured, he measured their speed and found them to be remarkably slow through the principle of _____________ which concerned metabolic processes in the frog.

conservation of energy

Gall and Spurzheim expanded faculty psychology into _________

phrenology.

However, by employing the ____________, Broca was able to uncover evidence of a region of the cortex that is accountable for the capacity to articulate speech.

clinical method

just over a decade after Broca's discovery, the German neurologist discovered (Carl Wernicke) a cortical area, near Broca's area, responsible for speech comprehension. This area on the left temporal lobe of the cortex has been named _________

Wernicke's area.

Weber was the first person to make an attempt to quantify the relationship between a Physical stimulus and the experience that it created. He discovered the two-point threshold for various regions of the body by observing the minimum distance between two points of stimulation that would be reported as two points. This allowed him to determine the threshold for two points. Working with weights, Weber identified the threshold for when a weight must be significantly heavier or lighter than a standard for it to be reported as being different from the standard. This feeling of dissimilarity was referred to as a difference that was just noticeable (jnd)

The finding that jnds corresponded to a constant fraction of a standard stimulus was later called

Weber's law

The study that Weber did was developed by Fechner when he demonstrated that jnds have a geometric relationship to stimulus. That is, as the magnitude of the standard stimulus increases, so did the amounts that needed to be added to or subtracted from a comparison stimulus before those differences could be noticed. He accepted Spinoza's double-aspect view of mind and body, and therefore believed that consciousness is as prevalent in the universe as is matter. Because he believed that consciousness cannot be separated from physical things, his position represents

panpsychism

CHAPTER 9

EARLY APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY

Both the field of experimental psychology as a distinct academic study and the school of voluntarism may trace their roots back to _____________

Wundt.

Wundt believed that all sciences are based on experience and that scientific psychology is no exception. But the type of experience psychology would use would be different. Whereas other sciences were based on mediate experience, psychology was to be based on ________________.

immediate experience

Wundt came to the conclusion that there are two fundamental forms of mental experiences:

sensations and feelings.

Wundt believed that reaction time may be used as an additional method for understanding the mind in addition to introspection. Wundt observed that individuals' reaction times became longer as the difficulty of the tasks they were asked to complete increased. These procedures were established by _______________, and Wundt used them to conduct his experiments. Wundt felt that the amount of time necessary to carry out a complicated mental operation could be calculated by deducting the amount of time necessary to carry out the more straightforward operations that make up the complicated act. Wundt ultimately decided not to continue his research on reaction time because he came to the conclusion that reaction time was an unreliable measure.

Donders

At Cornell University, Titchener is credited with founding the school of _________________. He aimed to educate himself on the "what," "how," and "why" of mental life as his ultimate objective. Determining the fundamental components of the mind (the "what"), the processes by which these components interact (the "how"), and the neurological foundations of mental processes (the "why") were the three components that made up the "why."

structuralism

Titchener, following in the footsteps of the empirical-associationistic tradition, stated that sensations always stimulate the memories of events that were previously experienced along with those sensations, and that it is these memories that give the sensations meaning.

Law of association under law of contiquity

_____________ is the name given to Brentano's theory, in which he argues that studying mental acts rather than mental elements is where psychology's focus should be

Act psychology

Unlike Titchener's introspection, bretano rather used the very type of _____________—the study of intact, meaningful experiences—that Titchener allowed into his program only toward the end of his life.

phenomenological methods

Stumpf shared Brentano's view that the focus of psychology should be on whole, meaningful experience rather than mental dissection. Stumpf was a major inspiration for the psychologists who founded the _______________

Gestalt school.

Ebbinghaus, along with other members of the Würzburg school, provided evidence to show that Wundt was incorrect in his assertion that higher mental processes could not be investigated through the use of ________________methods. Both Ebbinghaus and Müller conducted systematic research on learning and memory by using __________________ material. Because of the depth of their investigation, their works are still referenced in psychology textbooks.

experimental , "nonsense"

CHAPTER 10

EVOLUTION AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Lamarck hypothesized that characteristics that an individual has acquired over the course of their lifetime and that are beneficial to their survival are passed on to that individual's offspring. This theory was called the ____________

inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Spencer originally followed Lamarck's footsteps by asserting that connections that are utilized frequently are inherited by offspring in the form of_______________.

Spencer's synthesis of the principle of contiguity and evolutionary theory has been called "evolutionary associationism."

reflexes and instincts.

Spencer's contention that the frequency or probability of some behavior increases if it is followed by a pleasurable event and decreases if it is followed by a painful event came to be known as the ______________. This principle was to become the cornerstone of Thorndike's connectionism (see Chapter 11) and Skinner's operant behavior (see Chapter 13)

Spencer-Bain principle

When Darwin's work appeared, Spencer merely shifted his emphasis from acquired characteristics to natural selection. The concept of the_________________ (a term Spencer introduced in 1852 that was later adopted by Darwin) applied in either case.

survival of the fittest

Later on, Spencer came to accept Darwin's interpretation of evolutionary theory and applied it to society. He asserted that society ought to provide sufficient freedom for individual choice so that those who are best suited for survival can distinguish themselves from those who are least suitable for it. The theory behind this was known as _____________________

social Darwinism.

Throughout the course of his five-year journey onboard the Beagle, Darwin came to the conclusion that members of the same species can possess different traits depending on where they are located, and that the characteristics of a species can change over the course of its history. Darwin found support for his theory in ______________ essay, which stated that a species always produces many more offspring than the food supply could support, and that the population size is kept in check by occurrences such as starvation and disease.

Malthus's

Darwin's theory was based on the observation that a species always produces many more offspring than the food supply could support. Darwin extended this concept into a more general battle for existence, in which only the fittest and most adaptive survive. In Darwin's theory, there are individual differences among offspring, with some offspring possessing traits that are conducive to survival while others do not. Some offspring inherit these traits from their parents, while others do not. As a result, there was a process of natural selection that prioritized the offspring with characteristics that were most conducive to their continued existence given the conditions at the time.

true

Darwin's work demonstrates that the process of evolution may be applied not only to other living organisms but also to human beings. The ability of an individual to successfully reproduce was the standard by which Darwin measured fitness. Sociobiologists have been able to explain a vast variety of human social behavior in terms of evolutionary theory by redefining the term "fitness" to mean an individual's ability to perpetuate copies of his or her genes into future generations.. The study that was formerly known as sociobiology is now more commonly known as

evolutionary psychology.

Francis Galton, Darwin's cousin, was a man with a deep interest in measurement. He believed that intelligence was equivalent to sensory acuity, and as a result, the primary way he evaluated someone's intelligence was by testing their senses. He advocated the use of eugenics, also known as __________________________, as a means of enhancing human intelligence due to his belief that intelligence is passed down via generation that must be nurtured porperly.

selective breeding

Galton was the one who developed the formula that, when applied, yields a coefficient of ___________, which can be used to quantify the strength of a correlation (r). Cattell was the first person to use the term "mental test," and he was also the one who took Galton's concept of intelligence testing to the United States.

correlation

Binet and Simon developed their scale of intelligence in 1905_____________ in response to a request from the French government for a tool that could be used to accurately determine between normal children and children with mental deficiencies.

(Binet-Simon scale of intelligence)

The Binet-Simon scale was used to determine a child's mental age, which was then used to calculate the intelligence quotient, which was then compared to the child's actual age. Later on, Terman was the one who proposed that the quotient be multiplied by 100 in order to get rid of the decimal point, and that the term ___________ be shortened to IQ.

"intelligence quotient

It was observed by Spearman that there were high correlations between measures of a person's sensory acuity and their academic ability. Spearman came to the conclusion that intelligence may be broken down into two components by employing a method that later became known as ______________ One aspect, denoted by the letter s, is made up of specific abilities, while the other, denoted by the letter g, is made up of general intellectual capacity.

factor analysis.

factor analysis. denoted by the letter s, is made up of _____________-, while the other, denoted by the letter g, is made up of _______________ intellectual capacity.

specific abilities, general

he translated the Binet-Simon scale into English and administered it to both children with mental retardation and to children in the New Jersey public schools. The results of the Binet-Simon test led to the conclusion that a significant number of immigrants suffered from mental disorders; hence, these individuals were sent back to Europe.

Goddard

Terman made modifications to the Binet-Simon scale in order to make it more appropriate for use in the United States as well as simpler to assess statistically. Terman's version, which was given the name ________________ was utilized to identify 1,528 intellectually brilliant individuals. These children were subsequently subjected to extensive research throughout their whole lives. It was discovered over the course of many years that members of this talented group of people continued to rank in the top one percent of the population in terms of intelligence

Stanford-Binet,

When the United States entered World War I, Yerkes and other psychologists established a test for literate recruits called the ____________, and they developed a test called the____________for recruits who were either illiterate or did not understand English.

Army Alpha test, Army Beta test