Unit 1: The Global Tapestry

Overview of World’s Major Religions in 1200

• Religious Mysticism: adherents within religions focusing on mystical experiences that bring them closer to divine - prayer, meditation

• Buddhism

  • Cultures: India, China, Southeast Asia, Japan

  • Context:

    • Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince - lived in Nepal from 563-483 BCE, rejected wealth and world possessions and became Buddha (Enlightened One)

    • No supreme being - 4 Noble Truth: (1) all life is suffering, (2) suffering caused by desire, (3) can be freed of suffering by being freed of desire, (4) freed by following a prescribed path (eightfold path)

      • Eightfold path: outlines principles and practices a Buddhist must follow

        • moral lifestyle and meditation

    • carried over some features of Hinduism

      • karma, rebirth

    • Death of Buddha (483 BCE) = Buddhism split - Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism

    • Theravada Buddhism (originated to Sri Lanka): meditation, simplicity, nirvana as renunciation of consciousness and self

      • emphasis on escaping the cycle of birth and death

        • mainly restricted to monks

    • Mahayana Buddhism (spread of Buddhism to East Asia): great ritual, spiritual comfort - more complex but with greater spread

      • emphasized that Buddhist teachings were available to all, not just a select few (cough cough Theravada Buddhism)

      • emphasized compassion

      • made Buddha into an object of devotion

    • Tibetan Buddhism (spread to Tibet):

      • same basic doctrines as the others, but emphasized mystical practices

        • lying prostrate

        • elaborate imaginings of deities

  • Impact: rejects caste system - appealed to those of lower rank

    • India: reabsorbed in Hinduism

    • China, Japan, Southeast Asia: Buddhism continued to thrive

    • Further: spread via trade routes

    • spread to China in Han Dynasty

• Christianity

  • Cultures: started as group of Jews, quickly expanded through Europe, northeastern Africa, Middle East

  • Context:

    • Based around Jesus of Nazareth, a figure who claimed to be Messiah the Jews had awaited - teachings of devotion to God and love for others

    • Jesus was crucified by Roman and Jewish leaders in 30 CE and his followers believe he rose from dead into heaven

    • Based on Bible teachings

    • Believe Jesus is the Son of God - forgiveness of sins, everlasting life is achievable through him

    • World was created by God, but world has fallen from God

    • Believers should seek God and care for him and others

  • Impact: compassion, grace through faith appealed to lower classes and women

    • Became most influential religion in Mediterranean basin by 3rd century

    • Became official religion of Roman Empire, then branching north and west

    • Connection with Roman Empire had profound impact on global culture

• Confucianism

  • Cultures: China (400 BCE+)

  • Context:

    • Founded by Confucius, educator and political advisor - thoughts and sayings collected in the Analects

    • Deals with how to restore political and social order, not with philosophical or religious topics

    • Belief that society is hierarchical (superiors and inferiors). Harmony depended on keeping the proper relationships.

    • Filial piety: emphasized the need for children to obey and honor their parents, grandparents, and deceased ancestors.

    • 5 fundamental relations build society and make it orderly - (1) ruler and subject, (2) parent and child, (3) husband and wife, (4) older sibling and younger sibling. (5) friend and friend

  • Impact:

    • Compatible with other religions, causing it to flourish

    • Led to distinctive Chinese culture of tight-knit communities

    • Stayed within Chinese culture

• Hinduism

  • Cultures: India

  • Context:

    • Belief in one supreme force called Brahma who created everything - gods are manifestations of Brahma (Vishnu = preserver, Shiva = destroyer)

    • Goal of believer is to merge with Brahma - believe it takes multiple lives to accomplish and believers live to determine who they will be in their next life

    • Following the dharma (rules and obligations of your caste) will move you towards Brahma - moksha is highest stake of being (internal peace and release of soul)

    • No sacred text - Vedas and Upanishads guide Hindus

  • Impact:

    • Religion and social caste system, which has prevented global acceptance of religion

    • Spawned Buddhism

• Islam

  • Cultures: caliphates (Islamic kingdoms), North Africa, central Asia, Europe

  • Context:

    • 7th century - Muslims are the believers

    • Allah presented words through prophet Muhammad, whose words were recorded in the Qur’an

    • Salvation is won through submission to God - 5 Pillars of Islam: (1) confession, (2) prayer 5 times a day, (3) charity, (4) fasting during Ramadan, (5) pilgrimage to Mecca

    • 2 groups, Shia and Sunni, who disagreed who should succeed Muhammad

  • Impact:

    • Rapidly spread to Middle East

• Judaism

  • Cultures: Hebrews

  • Context

    • God selected a group of holy people who should follow his laws and worship them

    • Unique relationship with God

    • World is for them to enjoy, free will - destiny of world is paradise

    • Hebrew Bible - Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles, poetry, prophecies

  • Impact

    • First of major monotheistic faiths

Developments in Asia (1.1 Developments in East Asia)

China and Nearby Regions

• Song Dynasty (960-1279)

  • How did the Song Dynasty maintain and justify its power?

    • The revival of Confucianism, or Neo-Confucianism helped to legitimize Song Dynasty rule due to its ancient history in China

      • new: influence of Buddhist and Daoist philosophical ideas

      • revival of Confucianism demonstrated a continuity between ancient China and Song Dynasty but also illustrates innovation

        • rulers used the hierarchical view of society to maintain and justify their rule

    • use of an imperial bureaucracy - in order to be a part of the bureaucracy eligible men had to pass the Civil Service Exam, based on Confucian classics (bureaucracy: governmental entity that carries out the will of the emperor)

      • China’s bureaucratic system known as a meritocracy

        • poor vastly underrepresented

        • still, allowed for more upward mobility than any other hiring system

        • 1. bureaucracy staffed with only the most qualified men

        • 2. increased competency and efficiency of bureaucratic tasks

      • by the end of the Song: bureaucracy grew so large --> contributed to empire's weakness (created so many jobs and paid the officials so well, the increased costs of government starting drying up China's surplus wealth)

    • Bureaucracy began in Qin, but Civil Service Exam was in Han

      • Qin --> Han --> Sui --> Tang --> Song --> Yuan --> Ming (relative order, missing some)

  • Life for women in Song China:

    • Confucianism justified subordination of women - foot binding: women’s feet bound after birth to keep them small (occurred in elite social circles)

    • stripped of legal rights: could not own property, could not remarry if widowed, etc.

    • limited access to education

  • Neo-Confucianism: Buddhist ideas about soul, filial piety, maintenance of proper roles, loyalty to superiors

  • CONTINUITIES: The Song Dynasty demonstrated continuity and innovation to maintain and justify its rule. Confucianism as the state philosophy and the Civil Service Exam began during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) which means this was a continuity in Chinese History. However, Neo-Confucianism showed innovation (change). The use of a large bureaucracy began during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE). This is also a continuity.

  • Although the Song Dynasty made it their policy to emphasize more traditional Chinese ideas, like Confucianism, Buddhism continued to play a significant role in their society

    • Mahayana Buddhism

    • Chinese eventually developed own type of Buddhism - Chan Buddhism

  • Economy in Song China:

    • 1. Commercialization of Economy

      • produced more goods than they needed to survive and sold the excess on World Market

      • Song officials moved more and more to the use of paper money

        • resulted in related practices like credit and promissory notes —> thoroughly commercialized

        • paper money first used in China reported from Tang Dynasty, but it was during the Song dynasty that the practice became institutionized and adopted as a governmental policy

        • traditional money made from precious metals --> paper money was easier to transport, freed up metal that could be put to other use

    • 2. Iron & Steel Production

      • by the 11th century, both large scale manufacturers and home-based artisans were producing enough iron and steel to create all the suits of armor needed for war, all the coins needed for trade and taxation, and many of the tools needed for agriculture

    • 3. Agricultural Innovation

      • widespread use of iron plows and rakes

      • Champa Rice expanded agricultural productivity

        • came from Champa Kingdom in Vietnam through tribute system

        • drought resistant, harvestable twice a year (doubled agricultural output)

        • POPULATION BOOM

    • 4. Transportation Innovations

      • expanded Grand Canal (built in Sui) which linked Yellow and Yangzi Rivers

      • made trade among different regions cheaper, linked north and south China

      • 1. perfection of magnetic compass

        • improved navigation on water

        • further facilitated sea-based trade among various regions

      • 2. new ship-building techniques

        • improved design of massive trade ships called Junks by creating water-type bulkheads and stern-mounted rudders (made navigation more accurate) —> led to more trade among regions —> more economic prosperity

  • innovators created the first gun

  • proto-industrialization: set of economic changes in which people in rural areas made more goods than they could sell

  • world’s most commercialized society

Korea

• maintained a tributary relationship with China

• influenced by China:

  • 1. Korean court used a similar civil service exam to staff the bureaucracy

    • key difference: Nobles had more power in Korea —> prevented poor from entering?

  • 2. adopted Confucian principles to organize family structures

  • 3. went even further than China in marginalizing their role of women

    • mostly applied to elite members of society

Vietnam

• similar relationship like Korea to China (basically independent politically but had tributary relationship to China)

• Chinese influence:

  • 1. elite members of Vietnam society adopted

    • Confucianism

    • Buddhism

    • Chinese literary techniques

    • Civil service exam

  • women not as marginalized in Vietnam

    • evidence: several of nature deities were women, female version of Buddha

    • never adopted footbinding: just like Korea and Japan

Japan

• Heian Japan: separated from China by a ocean, still influenced by China

  • whatever cultural traits the Japanese adopted, it was voluntary

    • unlike Korea, with the looming threat of being invaded

  • around 7th and 9th CE: organized imperial bureaucracy

  • Chinese Buddhism also took root

  • Chinese writing system

• Relatively isolated from external influences outside Asia for many years

• Feudal Japan (1192):

  1. Emperor

  2. Shogun (chief general)

  3. Daimyo: owners of larger pieces of land, powerful samurai (like knights)

     • Followed Code of Bushido code of conduct - loyalty, courage, honor

  4. Lesser samurai (like vassals)

  5. Peasants and artisans

• Women had little rights and esteem

Developments in the Middle East (1.2 Developments in Dar-Al-Islam)

• Dar-Al-Islam = House of Islam (everywhere Islam was the majority religion)

• Judaism, Christianity and Islam interacted with each other

  • all monotheistic

  • 1. Judaism:

    • Ethnic religion of Jews

    • originated in Middle East

    • the soil in which the other 2 faiths grew

  • 2. Christianity:

    • established by Jewish prophet Jesus Christ

      • claimed to be the Messiah or the Savior that Jews were waiting for

      • after his death at the hands of Roman authorities: his followers spread his messages of salvation by grace

        • earliest Christians were a persecuted minority, but later on the Roman Empire adopted it (most significant influence of Christianity upon society)

  • 3. Islam:

    • founded by prophet Muhammad on the Arabian Peninsula, who claimed to be the final prophet in the line of God’s messengers

    • Islamic Doctrines: taught his followers that salvation would be found in righteous actions like almsgiving, prayer, and fasting

    • after the death of Muhammad: the faith he established started spreading rapidly throughout the Middle East, North and South sub-Saharan Africa, into Europe and South Asia (Dar-al-Islam)

      • impacted societies where it was practiced

    • Muhammad used to be a merchant:

      • Jesus’ teachings on accumulating wealth: DON’T

      • Thus, Islamic states became more prosperous than Christian states prior to 1200

      • Islamic states facilitated trade throughout Afro-Eurasia

        • facilitated rise of giant Empires

• Abbasid Caliphate/Dynasty: Golden Age to Remember

  • Islamic Empire from 750-1258 CE - early mid-9th century golden age

  • 1. Ethnically Arab

  • 2. In power during the Golden Age of Islam

    • by 1200s, was beginning to fracture and losing its place as the center of the Islamic world

    • IMPORTANT: several new Islamic empires began to rise in its place

      • largely made up of Turkic peoples, not Arab peoples

      • from the time of Muhammad till the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, Islamic empires were run by Arabs - but now the Turkic Muslims start coming in and setting up new rival empires out of the crumbling edifice of the Abbasid Empire

  • Capital in Baghdad (modern-day Iraq)

  • Centre for arts and sciences - mathematics (Nasir al-Din al Tusi), medicine, writings (House of Wisdom library)

  • Built around trade - used receipt and bill system

• Turkic Muslim Empires: Seljuk, Mamluk Sultanate, Delhi Sultanate

  • 1. Seljuk Empire: established in 11th century in Central Asia

    • pastoral, brought in by the Abbasids as a professional military force to expand their empire and to culturally integrate their empire by force

      • but by 1200s, Seljuk warriors began to claim more and more power for themselves

      • In the end, the Abbasid caliphs were still in power and claimed to speak for all of Islam, but the Seljuks had most of the political power

  • 2. Mamluk Sultanate:

    • in Egypt

    • prior to them, Ayyubid Sultanate under Saladin

      • in order to advance goals of the state, Saladin needed more labor

        • thus, enslaved group of Turkic warriors known as Mamluks

        • Saladin dies, sultans following were incompetent

        • Mamluks seized power giving rise to another Turkic Muslim state

  • 3. Delhi Sultanate:

    • south Asia

    • invading Turks established a state in the north and ruled over the Indian population for about 300 years

  • CHANGE in Muslim Empires:

    • as the Arab Muslim empires, like the Abbasid, declined, new Muslim empires made up of Turkic peoples were on the rise

  • CONTINUITY in Muslim Empires:

    • 1. Military in charge of Administration

    • 2. Implemented Sharia Law

      • code of laws established in the Quran

• How Islam Spread:

  • 1. Military Expansion:

    • establishment of Delhi Sultanate

  • 2. Merchant Activity:

    • trade

    • Empire of Mali converted to Islam - chief reason was the increased access to trade among Dal al-Islam

  • 3. Muslim Missionaries

    • large branch known as Sufis

      • Sufism was new and emerging form of Islam that emphasized mystical experience (available to everyone)

• Innovations and Transfers:

  • Mathematics: Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi

    • trigonometry: Nicholas Copernicus used his work to prove Earth revolved around the Sun (heliocentric theory)

  • Golden Age of Islam: House of Islam in Baghdad - library

    • preserved works of Greek moral and natural philosophy

    • scholars translated them into Arabic and made extensive commentaries on them, and without that effort, those works would likely have been lost forever

• Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions

  • Challenged by revolt of enslaved Turkish warriors, new Shia dynasty in Iran, Seljuk Turk Sunni group, Persians, Europeans, Byzantines, and most importantly Mongols

  • Mongols overtook and destroyed Baghdad in 1258

  • Ottoman Turks would later reunite Egypt, Syria, and Arabia in new Islamic state until 1918

  • Mamluks: Egyptian group that defeated Mongols in Nazareth, helping preserve Islam in Near East

sultanates vs caliphates: caliphate islamic ruler of the state, ruler of religion. sultatnates - islamic ruler ruled states, didnt claim to be the ruler of the religion.

caliphate: caliph (leader) considered both a religious and political authority over Muslim community. Sultanate: sultan (monarch) holds power over a particular geographic area.

State Building in South Asia & Southeast Asia (1.3)

Belief Systems:

• 3 main belief systems that were established and fighting for dominance: Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism

India (South Asia)

• Delhi Sultanate: Islamic invader kingdom in Delhi

• Dominant religion was Hinduism: (elite were Muslim)

  • 1. polytheistic religion (different from Judaism and Islam which were monotheistic)

  • 2. Ultimate goal of believers is to reunite their individual souls to the all pervasive world soul known as Brahman

    • involves cycling through death and rebirth (reincarnation) to achieve

  • Provided conditions for a unified culture in India

    • achieved this by structuring Indian society according to caste system

• Buddhism also established:

  • founded in India

  

  • ethnic religion: belief system is tightly bound to particular people in a particular area

    • don’t spread very well

  • universalizing religion: can be planted in any culture without completely overturning that culture

    • much more likely to spread

  • by the time of 1200s, Buddhism influence in its birthplace was waning

• Islam: 1206 - Turkic Muslim invaders came into South Asia and set up Delhi Sultanate

  • second most important belief system there

  • Because in large parts of India the Muslims were in charge, it became the religion of the elite, and then throughout Southeast Asia

State Building in South Asia

• Muslim rulers had a lot of trouble imposing Islam on India

• pockets of resistance to Muslim rule:

  • Rajput Kingdoms: collection of rival and warring Hindu kingdoms that existed before Muslim rule, united to resist Muslim forces from 1191 until eventual takeover in 1527

• new Hindu Kingdom founded in the South: Vijayanagara Empire in 14th century

  • Muslim Sultans in the north wanted to extend rule of Delhi Sultanate to the South

    • sent a group of emissaries down there

    • however those emissaries were Hindu who converted to Islam

    • once they were out from watchful eyes of the Muslim overlords, they quit being Muslim and established a rival kingdom

• Islam took over Northern India - clash between Islam monotheism and Hinduism polytheism

• Islam rulership brought in colleges and farming improvements

Southeast Asia

• Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam

• Changes in Religion:

  • 1. Hinduism

    • new expression of faith through Bhakti Movement

      • encouraged believers to worship one particular god in the Hindu pantheon of gods

      • rejected the hierarchy of Hinduism

      • encouraged spiritual experiences to all people regardless of social status

  • 2. Islam

    • Sufism (more mystical, spiritual experience-based version of Islam)

    

    • 3rd point: made them better candidates for spreading throughout the region

  • 3. Buddhism

    • despite the original teachings of the Buddha emphasizing access to enlightenment for all people, buy this time in South Asia it became more and more exclusive (monks who confined themselves to monasteries)

      • Southeast Asia - Buddhism declined

State Building in Southeast Asia

• Sea-based states:

  • Srivijaya Empire (7th to 11th century) Buddhist state heavily influenced by Indian Hindu culture - main source of power was control over little waterway called the Strait of Malacca

    • got rich by putting taxes on ships passing through

  • end or 1200s the Majapahit Kingdom established on Java

    • formerly were a Hindu kingdom but with strong Buddhist influences

    • maintained power by creating a tributary system among various states in the region

• Land-based states:

  • Sinhala Dynasties in Sri Lanka:

    • Buddhist states

  • when a state is designated as sea-based or land-based, what it means is whether they get their power from the sea or from the land

  • Khmer Empire: Hindu empire founded as

    • built Angkor Wat

    • later Khmer rulers converted to Buddhism and added Buddhist statuary all over the temple without destroying Hindu elements

      • when two religions blend like that: syncretism

• Religion spread and established different states

  

• Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand

  • Beliefs were carried through Indian Ocean trade network

  • Crafted the Angor Wat temple

State-Building in the Americas (1.4)

Mesoamerican Civilizations:

• Context: Maya Civilization (250-900 CE)

  • built huge urban centers, most sophisticated writing system in all the Americas during that time, complex math (concept of 0)

  • Maya State Building:

    • 1. state structure was basically a decentralized collection of city-states that were frequently at war with each other

    • 2. fought to create a vast network of tributary states among neighboring regions (textiles, military weapons, building materials

    • 3. emphasized human sacrifice

• Aztec Empire (1345-1528)

  • Mexica people - semi-nomadic who migrated around 14th century

  • 1428 - consolidated power in the region, entered alliance with two other mesoamiercan states - established empire with aggressive program of expansion

  • Mexica ethnic group established the Aztec Empire

• CONTINUITIES (Aztec from Maya):

  • political structure: decentralized power (all the people they conquered were set up as tributary states)

  • tributary system

  • religious motivation for expansion

  • in order to secure legitimacy as rulers over all the people, the Mexica claimed heritage from older, more renowned Mesoamerican people

• Aztec capital city called Tenochtitlan: vast markets set up, so economy was commercialized to some degree

Andean Civilizations:

• 

• Context: Wari which collapsed in 1000 CE

• mid 1400s the Inca Empire was established (borrowed a lot from older civilizations)

• Inca also made requirements of the people they conquered, but instead of tribute payments were usually labor payments

  • Mit’a system: Inca state required the labor of all people for a period of time each year to work on state projects like mining or military service

• from Wari: religion-centered political structure, and use and expansion of infrastructure including vast network of roads and bridges

Mississippian Culture:

• emerged 8th and 9th century CE in North America, established in Mississippi River Valley, represented first large scale civilization in North America

  • soil was fertile, society developed around farming (agriculture)

  • political structure dominated by powerful chiefs known as the Great Sun which ruled each town and extended political power over smaller satellite settlements (hierarchical society)

  • extensive mound building projects (mostly memorial in nature, acting as burial sites for important people, hosted religious ceremonies on the top

  • Cahokia: largest urban center

Mesa Verde and Chaco:

• after rise of Mississippian culture

• region was dry:

  • innovative ways developed of transporting and storing water

  • not many trees to provide timber for building structures:

    • Chaco carved sandstone blocks out of massive quarries, imported timber from distant regions and built massive structures

    • Mesa Verde built housing complexes right into the sides of cliffs using sandstone

• 3 great civilization in Central and South America: Maya, Incas, Aztecs

• Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice

  • Arrived in Mexico in mid 1200s

  • Tenochtitlan: capital city (modern Mexico City)

  • Expansionist policy and professional, strict army

  • Empire of 12 million people with flourishing trade, many of people enslaved

  • Women were subordinate, but could inherit property

• Inca: My Land is Your Land

  • Andes Mountains in Peru

  • Expansionist - army, established bureaucracy, unified language, system of roads and tunnels

  • Many people were peasants

  • Capital of Cuzco had almost 300000 people in late 1400s

  • Women were more important and could pass property to their daughters

  • Polytheistic religion with human sacrifice - Sun god was most important

    • People were mummified after death

  • Military was very important

  • Temple of the Sun and Machu Picchu architecture

• The Mayans (textbook does not go into detail)

State Building in Africa (1.5)

State Building in sub-Saharan Africa

• Swahili Civilization: emerged around 8th century

  • collection of independent city-states which rose to prominence because of strategic location on the East coast which gave access to bustling Indian Ocean trade

  • 1. Merchants interested in: gold, ivory, timber, and limited degree of enslaved laborers

  • goods imported from farmers and pastoralists

  • 2. Islam became dominant belief system

    • Swahili thrived on trade, and merchants in the Indian Ocean trade that were the biggest deal were Muslim

    • conversion among Swahili elite took place voluntarily and that was great for them because it connected them to the wider economic world of Dar-al-Islam

    • Islam influenced Swahili language: hybrid between bantu family of languages (indigenous) and Arabic (outside)

    • 2nd similarity: China did it with Confucian ideals while the Swahili States elevated the merchant elite above commoners

• Great Zimbabwe:

  • also got rich by participating in Indian Ocean trade which they facilitated by controlling several ports on the coast

  • mainly exported gold

  • economic mostly around farming and cattle herding

State Building in West & East Africa

• Hausa Kingdoms: collection of city-states that were politically independent and gained power and wealth through trade across trans-saharan trade network

  • similar to Swahili civilization

  • more influential and powerful African states during this period adopted Islam to both organize their societies and facilitate trade with the larger network present in Dar-al-Islam

    • exception: Ethiopia

      • was Christian, commissioned the constructuion of massive stone churches which communicated who was in charge to their subjects

      • 1. grew wealthy through trade

        • traded both in Mediterranean Sea and in larger Indian Ocean network

        • salt was one of the most valuable commodities

      • 2. centralized power

        • king on top, stratified class hierarchy

• Islamic Empire spread to North Africa in the 7th to 8th centuries - travelled through Sahara Desert and reached the wealthy sub-Saharan

• An explosion of trade began

• Hausa Kingdoms: off Niger River, series of state system kingdoms

  • Islam region, achieved economic stability and religious influence though long trade (salt and leather) - notably city of Kano

  • Political and economic downturn in 18th century due to internal wars

Developments in Europe (1.6)

• Christianity dominated Europe

  • back during the time of the Roman Empire, it was the official state religion due to emperor Constantine

    • for a while, unified Romans all over

    • 476 CE - western half of Roman Empire fell

    • however, eastern half (Byzantine Empire) kept faith and politically and socially organizing properties

      • Byzantine flavor of the faith was known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity

        • provided belief structure that helped Byzantine rulers justify and consolidate their power structure which was highly centralized (kinda similar to Song Dynasty?)

    • in the west, after the highly centralized Roman Empire fell, the region broke apart politically into many decentralized entities

      • despite the fragmentation in the west, Christianity maintained a powerful presence in the form of Roman Catholic Christianity

• Christianity in Europe: 1) Eastern Orthodox Christianity, 2) Roman Catholic Christianity

• by 1200s, Byzantine Empire lost lots of territory to neighboring Islamic powers

  • 1453-new Muslim power aka Ottoman Empire sacked capital city of Constantinople and changed the name to Istanbul (end of Byzantine Empire)

  • Eastern Orthodox Christianity was picked up and embraced by the Kievan Rus

• Kievan Rus: (adopted it before fall of Constantinople), but after Byzantine ended, it became the main embodiment of Christianity

  • borrowed a bit from Byzantine: architectural styles, alphabet, idea of using church structures to organize the state

• In Western Europe, this type of centralization was not occurring

  • in terms of trading connections, were pretty isolated, but still Roman Catholicism was constant

    • church hierarchy of popes, bishops, cardinals provided some common structure among the various states of Western Europe

    • Roman Catholic Church also provided occasions to whip(?) European Christians into a religious fury and go fight Muslims in distant lands (occasions known as Crusades)

      • except for the First Crusades, did not win against Muslims

        • did have effect of connecting Europeans to larger trade networks

• While Christianity was the dominant belief system, Islam and Judaism held important minority positions

  • ex. Iberian Peninsula - Muslims invaded in 8th century and by our period, ran the place (Muslim rule in Europe)

  • Jews scattered throughout Europe, regularly facilitated and participated in trade

    • European Christians suspicious of Jews (anti-Semitism)

• Political Decentralization in the West:

  • at this period, NO large empires in Europe

  • in western Europe, the social, political and economic order was essentially organized around a system known as feudalism

    • system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights

    • greater lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings

    • land was exchanged to keep everyone loyal

  • Manorialism:

    • peasants (serfs) bound to land and worked it in exchange for protection from the lord and his military forces

    • serfs similar to slaves - difference was that serfs were not owned by the lord but rather bound to the land

• however, by the start of 1200, Europe’s political structure began to change:

  • monarchs in various states began to gain power and centralize their states by introducing large militaries and bureaucracies

  • big deal because prior to this, nobility held more power

• Middle Ages: fall of Rome before Renaissance - complicated time

• Eastern Roman Empire became Byzantine Empire

• Western Europe: collapsed entirely - Christianity remained strong

• European Feudalism: Land Divided

  • Feudalism: European hierarchy social system of Middle Ages

    1. King: power over whole kingdom

    2. Nobles: had power over sections of kingdom in exchange for loyalty to king and military service

    3. Vassals: lesser lords with sections of Noble land who could divide it further - estates were called fiefs or manors (self-sufficient)

       • Founded three-field system: 3 fields for fall, spring, and empty one to replenish nutrients

       • Conflict between lords was regulated with code of chivalry which condemned betrayal and promoted mutual respect

       • Male dominated: women could not own land and land was passed down to eldest son (primogeniture), their education was limited to domestic skills

    4. Peasants or Serfs: worked the land

       • Had few rights or freedoms outside of manor

       • Skilled in trades, which helped them break out of feudal mode as global trade increased - led to middle class emergence of craftsmen and merchants

The Mongol Empire (2.2)

• largest contiguous land-based empire ever

Rise of the Mongol Empire:

• birth of Temujin, a Mongol who were pastoral nomads living in Gobi Desert

  • proved to be a powerful leader, through skillful diplomacy allied himself with powerful people

  • after leading several important military raids and being victorious, united the various Mongol groups under himself in 1206 and assumed the title Chinggis Khan (also known as Ghengis Khan, westernized version)

  • attacked and conquered Northern China, then terriroty in Central Asia then up to Southern Russia

  • died in 1227, sons kept expanding until empire reached peak at 1279

• How Mongols kept winning:

  • Military Organization: organized into groups of 10,000 or 1,000, 100, 10, made controlling and commanding them efficient

  • Superior Weaponry and Skills: weapon of choice was a bow larger than traditional ones (could sink enemies much further away)

    • skillful horse riders, could often outride those they encountered

  • Lucky Timing:

    • Song Dynasty recently lost control of north territory and large states like the Abbasid Empire had been declining in power for a long time

      • Mongols brought Abbasid Empire to an end with the destruction of Baghdad in 1258

  • Reputation for Brutaility:

    • in some cases, Mongol armies would slaughter nearly everyone in a settlement and then leave just a few alive so they could run to the next town and warn them of the Mongols

      • in some places, Mongols didn’t even have to fight - immediate surrenders

• although their expansion was pretty violent, once they reached their peak they became much more peaceful

  • period of peace under Mongol rule called Pax Mongolica

    • as the Mongol Empire expanded, it replaced a lot of Empires

• after Chinggus Khan’s death, his grandsons organized the empire into several khanates, or military regions:

• 

  • in many regions, Mongol rulers adopted a lot of cultural norms over the people they ruled

  • ex. Kublai Khan ruled in China and set up a new Chinese dynasty called the Yuan Dynasty

    • united warring factions from across China, many of the Confucian Elite believed that he posessed the Mandate of Heaven to rule China

    • styled himself as a benevolent Confucian-style ruler

    • Mongols in China did not become Chinese, but Mongols adapted their style of rule to the conditions of that place

• Mongols and Economics:

  • arguably, the Silk Roads were never as organized and prosperous than they were under Mongol rule

  • whole length of Silk Road under Mongol rule: 1 state was responsible for keeping everyone safe and goods flowing from one side of world to another

    • 1. Improved Infrastructure

      • built bridges, repaired roads —> facilitated more trade

      • thanks to Pax Mongolica, trade flourished

    • 2. Increased Communication (and cooperation along Eurasia)

      • ex. Persian and Chinese (course?) often worked together across distances, sent skilled artisans back and forth, exchanging ambassadors, shared military intelligence

        • done with the help of the Yam System: series of communication and relay stations spread across the empire

        • because of this interregional diplomatic, far-flung parts of the Empire were more friendly, increased trade, which further increased wealth of all involved

• Technological and Cultural Transfers

  • Mongols had a high opinion of intellectuals and skilled artisans

    • when on tours of conquest, were careful to not kill those people

    • because it was the Mongol policy to send skilled people to all different parts of the empire, that movement encouraged the transfer of technology and ideas and culture

  • Mongol Transfers:

    • 1. Medical Knowledge

      • developed by ancient Greek/Islamic scholars over to Western Europe

    • 2. Adoption of Uyghur Script

      • Mongol adaption of that script to write their language

      • Chinggus Khan first decided that his own Mongolian language needed a written form too —> adopted the Uyghur Script from a conquered people in Central Asia, became a kind of Lingua Franca (widely adopted imperial language)

      • point: despite their brutal rise, the Mongol Empire facilitated many cultural transfers across many parts of Eurasia

Fall of the Mongol Empire:

• many of the people under Mongol rule redoubled their efforts to install powerful centralized leaders and create a unified culture, paving the way for a modern world

• Set of tribes and clans that were superb horseman and archers

• Genghis Kahn: unified the tribes in Mongolia in the early 1200s to expand their authority over other societies - first invaded China in 1234

• Mongol Empire: spanned from Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe - spit into hordes after death of Genghis Kahn, ruthless warriors destroying cities but remained peaceful after settling into cities

  • Golden Horde: conquered modern-day Russia

  • Kublai Khan: Genghis Kahn’s successor - ruled China

• Didn’t really have a set culture - didn’t enforce religion or way of life on conquered nations, but did make any cultural advancements

• Timur Lang: Mongol leader who took over India and destroyed everything - grew Islam in the nation

• If any residents of society the Mongols took over resisted, they would immediately kill them, so most had no choice but to give in - they were ruthless fighters, organized and mobile

• Impact:

  • Great diffusers of culture

  • Prevented Russia from culturally developing

  • World trade, cultural diffusion, global awareness grew as they spread through Europe, the Middle East, and Asia

Mali and Songhai

• Mali had a lot of gold that Islamic traders were interested in

• Mansa Musa: Malian ruler who built the capital of Timbuktu and expended the kingdom beyond Ghana

• Sonni Ali: Songhai ruler that conquered region of west Africa in 15th century - became a major cultural centre until 1600

Chinese Technology

• Song Dynasty: bureaucratic system built on merit and civil service examination creating a lot of loyal government workers, improved transportation and communication and business practices

• Concentrated on creating an industrial society - improved literacy with printed books which increased productivity and growth

Review of Interactions Among Cultures

Trade Networks and Cultural Diffusion

• Trade exploded from 1200-1450

• Improved with better transportation and monetary systems

• Main Global Trade Routes:

  1. The Hanseatic League

  2. The Silk Road

  3. The land routes of the Mongols

  4. Trade between China and Japan

  5. Trade between India and Persia

  6. The Trans-Saharan trade routes between west Africa and the Islamic Empire

• Cultural diffusion - spread religions, languages, literature, art, idea, disease, plague

• Bubonic Plague: started in Asia in the 14th century and carried by merchants - killed about 1/3 people

Indian Ocean Trade Network (2.3)

• definition: network of sea routes that connected various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through trade

• Causes of Expansion:

  • 1. Collapse of Mongol Empire in 14th century

    • when the Mongol Empire started falling apart, so too did the ease and safety of travel along the Silk Roads and that led to a greater emphasis on maritime trade in the Indian Ocean (maritime = sea-based)

  • 2. Innovations in Commercial Practices:

    • same practices as used in Silk Roads

      • money economies, ability to buy goods on credit made trade easier and therefore increased the use of these eroutes

  • 3. Innovations in Transportation Techniques

    • 1. Magnetic Compass (improvements made)

      • helped sailors know for sure which direction they were going

    • 2. Astrolabe (improved)

      • tool used to measure stars and get an accurate reckoning of location

    • 3. Lateen Sail (increasing use)

      • allowed ships to take wind in almost any direction

    • 4. Knowledge of Monsoon Winds

      • predictably blew in different directions depending on time of year

    • 5. Improvements in Shipbuilding

      • ex. Chinese junk - massive ship that could carry lots of cargo

      • bigger and better Dhows used by Arab traders , could haul more cargo

      • mostly only luxury goods went on Silk Roads, since more common items wouldn’t be worth transporting across the world on the camel’s back

      • with increasing girth of trading ships, more common items could be shipped and sold in bulk like cotton textiles, grains along with luxury goods

  • 4. Spread of Islam

    • Islam was very friendly to merchants

    • created conditions for connectivity across land-based routes like the Silk Roads and also facilitated increased trade along sea-based routes as well

• Effects of Expansion:

  • 1. Growth of Powerful Trading Cities

    • 1. Swahili City-States

      • imported gold and ivory and enslaved people and sold them to merchants

      • as converts to Islam, built mosques

    • 2. Malacca, capital city of Sultanate of Malacca

      • controlled Strait of Malacca, taxed ships passing through

    • 3. Gujarat

      • traded goods like cotton textiles and indigo in exchange for gold and silver from middle east

      • just like Malacca, taxed ships coming in and going out its ports

  • 2. Increased establishment of Diasporic Communities

    • diaspora - related to disperse

    • a group of people from one place who establish a home in another place while retaining their cultural customs

      • Diasporic Chinese communities in southeast Asia

    • these communities became a kind of connective tissue holding the Indian Ocean Network together and increasing its scope

      • ex. Chinese merchants arrived in various ports in/around southeast Asia and the diasporic Chinese merchants living there would interact with local merchants and the government to facilitate trade

  • 3. Cultural and Technological Transfers

    • the cultural and technological exchanges that occur over trade routes are just as significant as the goods exchanged over these trade routes

    • merchants brought religion and language and technology

      • ex. Admiral Zheng He

        • commission by China’s new Ming Dynasty to go explore the Indian Ocean and enroll other states in China’s tributary system

        • his ships were huge and equipped with latest in military tech like gunpowder cannons, later adopted in many regions

        • with the Ming Dynasty’s insistence on state-led trade partnerships, various states around the Indian Ocean began taking more significant roles in trade

• Dominated by Persians and Arabs - western India to Persian Gulf to eastern Africa

• Great Zimbabwe: trading empire in Africa from 11th to 15th centuries

Vibrant Indian Ocean Communities

• Sailors marrying local women created cultural intermixing

Silk Roads (2.1)

• vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture and ideas across Eurasia in and before the period 1200-1450 (cultural diffusion)

• mainly luxury items that were exchanged (Chinese silk)

  • expensive to haul goods on a camel

• Silk Road Spread: Causes

  • exchanges along the silk road grew in scope

  • innovations in commercial practices:

    • 1. Development of Money Economies

      • pioneered by Chinese - used paper money to facilitate trade among various regions

      • with the introduction of paper money to facilitate trade, a merchant could deposit bills in one location and withdraw the same amount in another location —> increased ease of travel and security of transactions

    • 2. Increasing use of credit

      • instead of paper money, merchants could secure pieces of paper from merchant families in one region and go to another region and exchange that paper for coins

        • Chinese called it “flying money”

        • increasing use of this led to expansion of trade and networks of exchange

    • 3. Rise of Banks

      • used to facilitate all the exchanges of paper money and bills of credit

      • kept the flow of trade going along

      • in Europe: introduced Banking Houses based on Chinese model

        • merchant could present a bill of exchange and receive amount of money equal to the bill

  • Innovations in Transportation Technologies

    • 1. Caravanserai: series of inns and guest houses spaced about a day’s journey apart on the most frequented routes where travelling merchants and their animals could lodge for the night

      • 2 important functions:

        • 1. provided safety from plunderers

        • 2. became centers of cultural exchange & diffusion

    • 2. Saddles: made riding easier over long distances

      • more than one camel: frame & mattress saddle could hold more goods

  • commercial and transportation innovations meant that it was easier for merchants to pay for goods and get paid for goods and travel long distances safer and more comfortably

• Effects:

  • 1. New Trading Cities

    • cities were strategically located along these routes that they grew in power and wealth

    • cities along the way provided stops to resupply

      • 1. Kashgar (eastern edge of China) located at the convergence of two major routes of the Silk Roads, passed through exceedingly dry and hot terrain

        • built around a river, suited for agriculture (travelling merchants could stop for water and food)

        • with an increasing demand for interregional trade, Kashgar became a destination in itself hosting highly profitable markets and eventually became a thriving center for Islamic scholarship

      • 2. Samarkand (central Asia)

        • relics of many religions

  • 2. increased demand for luxury goods in all places along the Silk Roads

    • Chinese silk and Porcelain

      • as demands grew for these luxury items, Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans increased their production of these goods

        • shift to producing more and more items for sale in distant markets had impacts on population:

          • peasants in China’s Yangtze River Valley spent more time producing silk textiles for trade, scaled back on agricultural production

          • reorienting the economy like this created the conditions in China for proto-industrialization

            • a process by which China began producing more goods than their own population could consume, which were then sold in distant markets

            • all the money coming back into Chinese economy, went and reinvested it into their growing iron and steel industry

  • 3. Cultural Diffusion

    • merchants spread their own religion

    • when merchants met at the caravanserai, exposed to new innovations like saddles

    • discussed later: also led to spread of germs

• China to Mediterranean cultures in early days of Roman Empire and from 1200 to 1600

• Cultural exchange through travellers stopping at trade towns - Kashgar, Samarkand

• Silk, porcelain, paper, religion, food, military technologies

Trans-Saharan Trade (2.4)

• series of trade routes that connected North Africa and the Mediterranean world with interior of West Africa and the rest of sub-Saharan Africa

• Causes of Expansion:

  • 1. Innovations in Transportation Technologies

    • introduction of Arabian camel (about 1100)

  • 2. Saddles

    • riding and for carrying larger loads of cargo

  • 3. Caravanserai

    • just like Silk Roads

  • merchants now able to travel more comfortably, carry bigger loads and find shelter along the way, by 1200 the trans-Saharan network expanded larger than it had ever been

• Trans-Saharan Goods

  • 1. Gold

  • 2. Crops like Kola Nuts

  • 3. Horses

  • 4. Salt

• each region specialized in creating and growing various goods, and that difference created the demand to trade with each other, and created the occasion for the expansion of these networks

• Effects:

  • 1. Growth of Empires

    • Empire of Mali: established in 1200s, had converted to Islam —> got connected to economic trade partnerships throughout Dar-al-Islam

      • that religious and ecnomic connection meant that Mali, once it was established, grew exceedingly wealthy because of its participation in the trans-Saharan trade network

      • exported gold, gained wealth and power by taxing other merchants travelling their trade routes through their territory

      • display of wealth in its most poweful and influential ruler Mansa Musa:

        • as a Muslim decided he would embark on Hajj (pilgrimmage to Mecca)

        • stopped for a while in Egypt to resupply with his entourage

        • injected so much gold into Egyptian economy that the value of all existing gold plummeted

          • futher monopolized trade between the North and the interior of the continent

Hanseatic League

• Made up of over 100 cities

• Created substantial middle class in northern Europe

• Set precedent for large, European trading operations

Expansion of Religion and Empire: Cultural Clash

• Both natural spread of religion through contact over trade and intentional diffusion through missionary work or religious war

Cultural Effects of Connectivity (2.5)

• Trade Networks and Diffusion

• 1. Cultural Transfers

  • spread of belief systems

    • Buddhism spread from India to East Asia via the Silk Roads (2nd Century CE)

    • ex. took root among Chinese, Buddhism changed over time

      • in order to make Buddhist teachings intelligible to the Chinese population, merchants and monks explained them in terms of Chinese Daoism, which was a belief system indigenous to China

        • result: new blending of ideas called syncretism —> Chinese form of Buddhism called Chan Buddhism (popular among lower class)

        • later Buddhism exported to Japan, where it was changed again to Zen Buddhism

    • Spread of Islam: spatial arrangement of Dar-al-Islam meant that Muslim merchants had plenty places to go to sell goods —> possibility of inclusion into that giant Islamic network of exchange that encouraged leaders in various states across Africa and Southeast Asia to convert (ex. Swahili, adopted Islam and got connected to larger Islamic netowkr) (proof in language of Swahili - blend of Bantu (indigenous to Southern Africa) and Arabic)

• 2. Literary and Artistic Transfers

  • Muslim scholars translated and commented upon classical works of Greek and Roman philosophy at Baghdad’s House of Wisdom

    • eventually transferred to Southern Europe where they would spark the Renaissance near end of this period

• 3. Scientific and Technological Transfers

  • Chinese papermaking technologies spread to Europe by 1200s along with moveable type which was adopted and modified by Europeans which led to an increase in literacy

  • spread of gunpowder from China thanks to Mongols: adapted by Islamic empires and later European states who would perfect the use of this material —> altered balance of power throughout the world

Consequences of Connectivity on Rise and Fall of Cities (Effects of Trade on Cities)

• Rising: Networks of exchange led to the increasing wealth and power of trading cities

• Expansion of Cities:

  • 1. Hangzhou in China (located at end of Grand Canal, became one of China’s most significant trading city)

    • trade led to futher urbanization of landscape and population

  • 2. Samarkand & Kashgar

    • along Silk Roads

• for all these cities, expansion of trading networks only increased their influence and taht resulted in an increase of productivity in those place

• not only did merchants travel these routes, but also militaries that wanted to conquer

• Decline of Cities:

  • 1. Baghdad

    • capital of Islamic cultural and artistic achievement

    • Mongols rose to power in 1200s and sacked them, leading to a decline in the city and borught the end of the Abbasid Empire

  • 2. Constantinople

    • political and religious capital of the Byzantine Empire

    • rise of Islamic Ottoman Empire, sacked them in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul

• Increased Interregional Travel:

  • they were facilitated by networks of exchange

    • made possible by increasing safety and security of these routes (Mongols)

    • 1. Ibn Battuta

      • Muslim scholar from Morocco, travelled all over Dar-al-Islam, took notes about people, rulers, cultures

      • Battuta's travels were important because he wrote about them and told grand stories ofo the places he visited which helped his readers develop an understanding of far-flung cultures across the world

    • 2. Marco Polo (European)

      • traveled from Italy to China and all throughout Indian Ocean, wrote about Kublai Khan and China’s grandeur and wealth

    • 3. Margery Kemp:

      • Christian mystic, made pilgrimages to Christianity’s holy sites (Jerusalem, Rome, Spain, etc)

      • although illiterate, good memory and dictated observations to be written down

Environmental Consequences of Connectivity (2.6)

• also introduced new crops to various places

• Agricultural Transfers:

  • 1. Bananas

    • first domesticated in southeast Asia but thanks to merchants crossing the Indian Ocean, they were introduced to Africa, where they flourished

      • when bananas were introduced, the diets of the people were expanded and that led to population growth

  • 2. Champa Rice

    • China from Champa Kingdom, population growth

  • 3. Citrus Fruits (sour oranges and limes from Muslims Traders into Europe via the Mediterranean trade routes where they spread throughout Europe and North Africa

    • more variation in diets, better health

• Diffusion of Diseases:

  • spread of Bubonic Plague (the Black Death)

  • thank the Mongols

  • through their conquests, increased the pace and volume in geographical extent of trade by keeping thouse various routes safe

    • 1331 the Bubonic Plague erupted in northern China, travelled rapidly through the Silk Roadsand through the Indian Ocean Trade

    • spread almost entirely along trade routes

    • killed crap ton of people

Other Reasons People Were on the Move

• Ran out of room in certain places, but cities were always increasing in size as opportunities grew in them

• New cities and empires drew people in

• Muslim pilgrimages

Notable Global Travellers

1. Xuanzang: Chinese Buddhist monk - through T’ang Dynasty to India to explore Buddhism

2. Marco Polo: merchant from Venice, to China and Europe

3. Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler, through Islamic world to India to China

4. Margery Kempe: English Christian, through Europe and Holy Land

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

Land-Based Empires Expand (3.1)

• Gunpowder Empires:

  • land-based

  • expanding geographically

    • main cause was adoption of gunpowder weapons

    • sprung up in the wake of the fall of the Mongols

• #1: Ottoman Empire

  • during this period, most significant Islamic empire

  • founded in 14th century after Mongol empire fell (?)

    • grew rapidly for 2 reasons:

      • 1) strategic control of the Dardanelles (highly strategic choke point, used to launch many campaigns of expansion

      • 2) adoption and development of gunpowder weapons

    • one of the largest achievements: sack of Constantinople (heart of Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453) —> renamed to Istanbul

• #2: Safavid Empire:

  • established beginning of 1500s out of the ashes of former Muslim empires

  • grew under leadership of Ismail

    • declared themselves a Shi’a Muslim state

    • context: before this period, two major divisions of Islam: Shia and Sunni —> had conflicting beliefs about who was the legitimate successor of Muhammad

      • Shia believed Muhammad’s true successor must be a blood relative

      • Sunni believed Muhammad’s successor can be elected

    • why this was important: when Safavid did that, they kinda angered neighboring Sunni Muslim empires (ex. Ottoman Empire and Mughal Empire)

  • under rule of Shah Abbas —> military expanded, adopted gunpowder weapons

  • empire also lacked natural defensive barriers like mountains, Shah Abbas built up Safavid military (adoption of gunpowder weapons),

    • just like with Ottoman Empires, Safavid calvary not interested in learning to shoot guns from horses and so he established an enslaved army (just liek with Ottomans, they were Christians from conquered regions, in this case the Caucasus region)

    • 

• #3: Mughal Empire:

  • replaced Delhi Sultanate in 16th century under the leadership of Babur

    • made use of expanding military armed with gunpowder, cannons and guns to expand

  • expanded even further under Babur’s grandson, Akbar

    • extremely religious tolerant

    • under his leadership, Mughal Empire became the most prosperous empire of the 16th century

    • Muslim

• #4: Qing Dynasty aka Manchu Empire:

  • context: decline of Mongol rule in China (Yuan Dynasty) —> Ming Dynasty established in 14th century (ethnically Han)

    • expanded through use of gunpowder

    • by 1500s, Ming Dynasty was fracturing due to internal divisions, external wars —> rise of Qing

  • Qing established by another group of outsiders (first was Mongols) namely the Manchu people

    • 1636 took advantage of fractured Ming and invaded

    • 40 year campaign of conquest to claim all the former Ming territory used gunpowder weapons

      • Important: Manchu were not ethnically Han like the majority of China’s population (later would cause tension)

• 

• Rivalries between states:

  • clashes mostly caused by religion and politics

  • #1: Safavid-Mughal conflict

    • series of wars fought between the two in 17th century

    • both wanted to expand into the Persian Gulf in Central Asia

    • before war started, Mughals controlled the territory, but while they were off fighting elsewhere, the Safavids tried to take it, fought but unable to take back (Mughal)

    • conflict erupted due to religious rivalry

      • Safavids were Shi’a, Mughals were Sunni —> both claimed to be the rightful heirs to previous Muslim dynasties

  • #2: Songhai-Moroccan conflict:

    • Songhai had expanded and grown rich due to participation and partial control of trans-Saharan trade

      • right about that time, began to weaken due to significant internal problems

      • growing Moroccan kingdom saw the weakness and wanted more control over the trade routes controlled by the Songhai

      • in a surprise invasion, Moroccan (whipped?) the Songhai due to use of gunpowder weapons of which the Songhai had none

Land-Based Empires: Administration (3.2)

• How rulers of land-based empires legitimized and consolidated their power

• legitimize power: refers to the methods the ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects WHO is in charge (methods used to establish their authority)

• consolidate power: measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups and claim it for him or herself

• Administrative Methods - 1) Bureaucracies and militaries: empires and powers

  • 1. Formation of Large Bureaucracies

  • large imperial bureaucracies (body of government officials responsible for administering the empire and ensures the laws are being kept) (expanding empires —> larger bureaucracies)

    • ex. Ottoman Empire - Devshirme system

      • system by which the Ottomans staffed their imperial bureaucracy with highly trained individuals, most of whom were enslaved

        • ex. in campaigns for territorial conquest in the Balkans, the Ottomans enslaved Christian boys who were then sent to live with Turkish families to learn the language, then sent to Istanbul for a proper Islamic education

        • many of those boys ended up in the military, but the best were given further education and sent to work in the Ottoman bureaucracy where their elite education made them wise and effective administrators

  • 2. Development of Military Professionals - Military Expansion

    • creating elite cadres of military professionals

    • same Devshirme system supplied elite soldiers who became known as the Janissaries - made up of enslaved Christians and formed the core of the Ottoman standing army which was significantly increasing in size

• 3) religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture

• religion:

  • 1. European monarchs - religious belief - rule by divine right of kings (idea that monarchs were God’s representative on Earth)

  • 2. Aztecs - human sacrifices

    • believed Sun god lost energy at regular intervals and can only be reinvigorated through spilling of sacrificial blood

    • height of Aztec empire - priests and rulers worked in tandem to perform these sacrifices usually using prisoners of war and gathered whole cities for the ritual

• art:

  • 1. Qing Dynasty - Emperor Kangxi displayed imperial portraits of himself around the imperial city

    • although they were Manchu people (outsiders), but in those portraits Kangxi is depicted according to traditional Confucian values which appealed to his Chinese subjects

    • images depicted him surrounded by books, suggesting Confucian wisdom

• architecture:

  • 1. Palace of Versailles built for French monarch Louis XIV (14)

    • when people of France saw this palace —> legitimized power

    • also consolidated power - forced French nobility to live there at least part-time

      • able to remove power from them and situate it right under him

      • he could keep an eye on them and they competed for his attention

  • 2. Inca Sun temple in Cuzco (?)

    • Incan rulers considered to be direct descendants of gods, so to faciliate festivals of worship, temple was built, walls covered with sheets of gold, courtyards contained hundreds of gold statues

    • Incan rulers were associated with Gods, so magnificient buildings was a way of legitimizing power

• how imperial rulers financed imperial expansion (huge militaries and monumental architecture)

• 4. innovations on tax collection systems(Systems of Taxation) Financing Empire:

  • 1. Zamindar system (Mughal Empire)

    • Mughal rulers were Muslim while most of South Asian population was Hindu —> large amounts of suspicion towards Muslim rulers

    • to combat that, Mughal rulers employed local land owners called Zamindars to collect taxes throughout the empire on behalf of the emperor

      • effect: extended imperial authority and consolidating imperial power

    • Zamindars: elite landowners who were granted authority to tax peasants living on their land on behalf of hte imperial government

      • eventually grew corrupt and started skimming money off the top to enrich themselves

  • 2. Tax farming (Ottoman Empire)

    • didnt want to increase size of bureaucracy for to collect taxes

    • the right to tax subjects of the Ottoman Empire went to the highest bidder

      • whoever got that right was authorized to collect taxes from a particular group of people and they enriched themselves by collecting more taxes than were legally required, thus padding their pockets

        • helped Ottoman government by providing a reliable source of income at the beginning of every year which came from the bidding for the right to tax

        • since tax farmers weren’t members of the official bureaucracy, the Ottomans didn’t have to pay them since they paid themselves

  • 3. Tribute Lists (Aztec Rulers):

    • whenever the Aztecs conquered a place, they gave tribute lists filled with the goods that place were responsible for sending to the imperial

      • ensured steady flow of a wide variety of goods to the Empire

      • communiated who was in charge to those conquered regions

Land-Based Empires: Belief Systems (3.3)

• Christianity, Islam, Syncretism

• Christianity in Europe:

  • dominant religion: Christianity - shared cultural glue

  • heart of Roman Catholic Church was located in Rome

  • church present and active in most states

  • 11th century: church leaders fought over doctrines and a massive split occurred, creating 2 different branches:

    • Eastern Orthodox Church (dominant in East)

    • Roman Catholic Church (dominant in West)

  • by 1500, Catholic Church wielded enormous power in Europe (Pope Leo X), even though this was about the time when more powerful monarchs began to challenge them

    • even so, filthy rich and built magnifent structures like St Peter’s Basilica

      • in order to fund these projects, church began sale of indulgences

        • people could purchase these little slips of paper which promised forgiveness of sins or got people they knew shorter time in purgatory

        • several other corrupt practices - simony (practice of putting high church positions up for sale —> people’s confidence in church waning

        • 

          • Martin Luther: Catholic monk, saw nothing in Bible saying sins could be forgiven in exchange for money and nothing that said Church offices could be bought

          • thought the Catholic church misinterpreted scriptural teachings about salvation

            • wrote 95 Theses denouncing many of the corrupt practices and doctrines he witnessed in the church - nailed to church door in Vitenburg(?) 1517

            • branded as heretic and got excommunicated

    • however, Luther wasn’t the first reformer to criticize the doctrines and practices of the church - but for some reason, it was his work that split the church in process known as Protestant Reformation (CHANGE in Christainity in Europe)

      • he had printing press: enabled Luther’s voluminous writings to spread throughout Europe quick

      • eventually Catholic Church realized that some of the Protestant critiques were true , so intiated a reformation of their own known as Catholic Reformation aka Counter Reformation

      • church gathered at series of meetings known as the Council of Trent, tossed out many corrupt practices like nepotism, absenteeism

        • CHANGE !

      • CONTINUITY: at the Council of Trent, the catholics reaffirmed their ancient doctrines of salvation by faith and works, nature of biblical authority, and other ideas that made the split between Catholics and Protestants complete

      • also reaffirmed that Martin Luther was a heretic

  • the catholic church continued as a dominant expression of Christainity in Europe

  • 

  • Split of Church had massive effects on state power throughout Europe:

    • various rulers across Europe either remained Catholic or imposted Protestantism upon the people they ruled

      • this religious division which often intensified political division led to a series of religious wars in Europe until 1648

  • both reformations led to significant growth of Christianity in Europe

• Islam in the Middle East

  • big empires: Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire

    • JUST LIKE with Christianity, Islam experienced a split back in 7th century

    • split of Sunni (anyone spirtiually qualified for that role), Shi’a (only legitimate successor of Muhammad had to be blood related)

    • Safavids were Shi’a while the Ottomans were Sunni

    • both wanted to beat back the other and claim territory for their own

    • ultimately, Ottomans got the upper hand

      • it was because of their political rivalry that the split between the Shi’a and Sunni branches of Islam intensified

• 

• 

• ^^ those first three were not blood relatives

• Changes in South Asia

  • development of new belief systems

  • Muslims held power in region in Mughal Empire, not good to huge majority of Hindus

    • two belief systems emerged that tried to bridge the gap between Islam and Hinduism

    • 1) Bhakti movement

      • originated in 7th century, innovation on Hinduism that emphasized mystical experience in union with one of Hinduism’s many gods

      • because the Bhaktis shared many similar beliefs and practices as with the mystical movement in Islam, (Sufism), some exchange and blending occurred

    • 2) rise of Sikhism - new belief system that blended elements of Islam and Hinduism

      • demonstrated CONTINUITY because it held onto significant doctrines of both belief systems,

        • ex. belief in one God, cycle of death and reincarnation

      • demonstrated CHANGE because as the faith developed, many distinctions were discarded, like the caste system and gender hierarchies

    • 

Major European Developments

• After 300 years of development, Europe become the dominant world power

• Revolutions in European Thought and Expression:

  • 1300s: Europe had been Christian for over a thousand years

  • As countries began to unify and connect more, especially with countries who had preserved their history, Europe expanded its worldview and explored its past and 4 cultural movements happened

The Renaissance

• As trade increased, people moved to the cities and an influx of money was experienced - a lot of money went to studying the past

• Humanism: focus on personal accomplishment, happiness, and life on earth instead of living for the goal of salvation

  • Afterlife remained dominant in the Catholic Church

• Arts have a comeback

  • People could afford art again - Medici family patrons of Michelangelo and Brunelleschi

  • Artists focused on realism - Leonardo da Vinci and Donatello

• Western writers have an audience

  • mid-1400s: Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press - made books easy to produce and affordable, and accessible to everyone

  • led to more literate people

The Protestant Reformation

• Catholic Church was one of the most powerful organizations in the Middle Ages - power in politics and society - undisputed authority

• Church capitalized off its many followers with indulgences: paper faithful could purchase to reduce time in purgatory

• Nobles and peasants began getting increasingly frustrated by the church’s exploitation and noticed its corrupt nature

• Martin Luther: German monk who published his list of complaints against the church - most significantly proposed salvation was given directly through God, not through the church, which significantly reduced the church’s influence

  • Pope Leo X: excommunicated Luther when he refused to recount his idea

• Christianity split - Luther’s ideas led to many others to come forward

  • Lutherans: Luther’s followers - separated from Catholic Church

  • Calvinism - John Calvin: predestination - only a few people would be saved by God, great influence in Scotland and France

  • When the pope refused to annul King Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon because a heir wasn’t produced, he declared himself the head of religious affairs - presided over Church of England/Anglican Church

  • Jesuits - Ignatius Loyola: prayer and good works leads to salvation

• Catholic Reformation (16th century)

  • Catholic church attempts to remedy some of their controversies and regains some of its credibility - still wanted authority and control

  • Council of Trent: reinstated pope authority, punished heretics, reestablished Latin as only language in worship

  • Caused wars

Scientific Revolution

• Expanded education led to world discoveries

• Copernican Revolution: Nicolaus Copernicus - discovered earth and other celestial bodies revolved around the sun and the earth rotated on its axis

• Galileo: built off Copernicus’s theories and proved them - forced to recant by the Catholic Church and put under house arrest

• Scientific Method: shift from reasoning being most reliable means of scientific meaning to scientific method (theory, documentation, repetition, others experimenting)

• Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, Johannes Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton

• Led to Industrial Revolution, and many rejecting the church - atheists (believe no god exists), deists (believe God exists, but is passive)

• Deism: became popular in 1700s - God created the earth but doesn’t interfere in its workings

European Rivals

Spain and Portugal

• Spain became very powerful, supporting exploration, expansion of Spanish language and culture, and having a large naval fleet

  • Under Charles V, Spain controlled parts of France, the Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Spain, America

  • Under Charles’s son Philip, the Spanish Inquisition to oust heretics was continued, the Dutch Protestants under Spain revolted to form independent the Netherlands - lost a lot of money in mid-17th century and was poised to be defeated by England and France

• Portugal focused on dominating costal Africa, Indian Ocean, Spice Islands - lost control to Dutch and British

England

• Henry VIII never succeeded in having a male heir - his daughter Elizabeth I became Queen

• Elizabethan Age (1558-1603): expansion, exploration, colonization in New World - golden age

  • Muscovy Company: first joint-stock company - British East India Company

• James I: succeeded Elizabeth in 1607 - England and Scotland under one rulership, reforms to accommodate Catholics and Puritans failed

• Charles I: succeeded James in 1625 - signed Petition of Rights (limiting taxes and forbidding unlawful imprisonment) - ignored it for the next 11 years

  • Scottish invaded England out of resentment for Charles in 1640 - called the Long Parliament into session (sat for 20 years), which limited the powers of the monarchy

  • Parliament raised an army, under Oliver Cromwell, to fight the King after he tried to arrest the

  • Parliament defeats the king and executes him - began the English Commonwealth (Oliver Cromwell known as the first Lord Protector)

• Oliver Cromwell: intolerant of religion, violent against Catholics and Irish - highly resented

• Charles II: exiled son of Charles I invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne as a limited monarchy after Cromwell died (Stuart Restoration)

  • Agreed to Habeas Corpus Act: prevents people from arrests without due process

• James II: succeeded Charles II after his death - highly disliked, fear he would make England a Catholic county - driven from power by Parliament (Glorious Revolution)

• Succeeded by his daughter Mary and her husband William - signed English Bill of Rights (1689)

France

• Unified and centralized under strong monarchy after Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)

• Largely Catholic, but French Protestants started to emerge (Huguenots) and fought with the Catholics

• Henry IV: issued Edict of Nantes (1598) (environment of tolerance between religions) - first of Bourbon kings who ruled until 1792

• Cardinal Richelieu: chief advisor to the Bourbons who compromised with Protestants instead of fighting with them

  • Created the bureaucratic class noblesse de la robe, succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin

• Louis XIV: reigned from 1642-1715 - highly self-important and grandiose, condemned many Huguenots, never summoned the French lawmakers, appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to manage royal funds - France almost constantly at war to increase empire

  • War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714): Louis’s grandson was to inherit the Spanish throne, so England, Roman Empire, and German princes united to prevent France and Spain from combining

German Areas (Holy Roman Empire?)

• Holy Empire was in present day Austria/Germany - weak due to the mixed dynamics, rulership, and religion of the surrounding area

  • Lost parts of Hungary to Ottoman Turks in early 16th century

  • Devastated by Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

  • German states were gaining power by 18th century

• Peace of Augsburg (1555): intended to bring end to conflicts between Catholics and Protestants

• Thirty Years’ War: began when protestants in Bohemia challenged Catholics - violent and destructive

  • Peace of Westphalia (1648): German states affirmed to keep the peace

Russia

• Russian leaders were overthrowing reigning Mongols in late 15th century

• Moscow became centre of Orthodox Christianity

• Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Mongols and declared them free from their rule - lead Russians, later Ivan IV did too

  • Recruited peasants freedom from boyars (their feudal lords) if they conquered their own land themselves

• Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible): strong leader feared by many - executing people who were threats to his power

• Battle for throne after Ivan IV died without an heir - Time of Troubles (1604 to 1613): killing those who tried to rise to the throne

• Michael Romanov was elected by feudal lords until 1917 - Romanovs consolidated power and ruled ruthlessly

• Peter the Great: ruled from 1682-1725 - redesigned and adapted Russia in to westernized fashion

• Catherine the Great: ruled from 1762-1796 - education and Western culture - serf conditions were of no importance to her

Islamic Gunpowder Empires

• Ottoman Empire precedes 1450 - founded by Osman Bey as the Mongol Empire fell

  • Eventually invaded Constantinople in 1453 and ended Byzantine Empire (Constantinople now named Istanbul)

  • Ottomans were Islamic and solidified rule over territory from Greece to Persia to around Mediterranean into Egypt and northern Africa by giving land (timars) to Ottoman aristocrats to control

  • Employed practice called devshirme: enslaved Christian children and turned them into warriors called Janissaries

  • Selim I: came into power in 1512, led much of the empire growth, made Istanbul centre of Islamic civilization

  • Suleiman I: succeeded Selim I in 1520, build Ottoman military and arts - golden age from 1520-1566

    • Took over parts of Hungary, but could not successfully take over Vienna

• Babur: Mongol leader who invaded northern India in 1526 - Mughal Empire (dominated for next 300 years)

  • United entire subcontinent

  • Akbar: succeeded Babur from 1556 to 1605 - united India further with religious toleration, did give Muslim landowners (zamindars) power to tax

  • Hindus and Muslims lived side by side in a golden age of art and thought - under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal was built

  • Aurangzeb: emperor who ended religious toleration and waged wars to conquer rest of India - Hindus were persecuted

  • Europeans arrived in early 17th century to trade and spread ideas - after 1750 is when Britain turned into an imperial superpower

Africa

• Starting in 10th century, wealth accumulated from trade - Songhai, Kongo, and Angola became powerful kingdoms

• Songhai:

  • Islamic state

  • Sunni Ali: ruler 1464-1493 - navy, central administration, financed Timbuktu - fell to Moroccans

• Asanti Empire: arose in 1670 - avoided invasion and expanded its territory

• Kongo:

  • King Alfonso I: Catholic, and converted his people

  • Mostly destroyed by previous allies Portugal

• Angola:

  • Established by Portuguese around 1575 for the slave trade

  • Queen Nzinga resisted Portuguese attempts to further their control for 40 years

Isolated Asia

China

• Ming Dynasty was restored until 1644 after kicking out Mongols in 1368

• Built huge fleets in early 15th century to explore Asia and Indian ocean - Zheng He: famous Chinese navigator

• Economy started failing due to silver currency inflation, famines in 17th century, peasant revolts

• Qing warriors were invited to help Ming emperor but instead ousted him in 1644

• Qing/Manchus ruled China until 1911

  • Not ethnically Chinese so had to affirm legitimacy - displayed imperial portraits with Chinese historical items

  • Kangxi: ruled from 1661 to 1722 and conquered Taiwan, Mongolia, central Asia, Tibet

  • Qianlong: ruled from 1735 to 1796 and conquered Vietnam, Burma, Nepal

  • were both Confucian scholars

• Did not interact a lot with surrounding nations, protected their culture

Japan

• Shoguns ruled Japan in 16th century, but Christian missionaries came in and Jesuits took control of Nagasaki - westernization

• Tokugawa Ieyasu: established Tokugawa Shogunate (Edo period) from 1600 to 1868 - strict government that instituted a rigid social class model

  • Moved capital of Japan to Edo (modern-day Tokyo)

  • National Seclusion Policy (1635): prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad and prohibited most foreigners

  • Japanese culture thrived - Kabuki theatre and haiku poetry became popular

Resistance

• Key rebellions in 17th and 18th centuries:

  1. Ana Nzinga’s Resistance (Kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba) - 1641-167

     • Resisted Portuguese colonizers

  2. Cossack Revolts (Modern-day Ukraine) - 17-18th century

     • Resisted Russian Empire but were eventually defeated

  3. Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804

     • Resisted France and eventually achieved independence for Haiti

  4. Maratha (India) - 1680-1707

     • Resisted Mughal Empire and defeated them starting the Maratha Empire

  5. Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th century

     • Resisted slave-owners in Americas and avoided attempts to be recaptured and sold

  6. Metacom’s War (US) - 1675-1678

     • Resisted British colonists over unfair trade practices

  7. Pueblo Revolts (US) - 1680

     • Resisted Spanish colonizers and their encomienda system, but victory was temporary

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections

Sea-Based Empires: Technology (4.1)

• Adopted Technologies

• 1st cause of European imperial expansion: technology

• these states that developed these sea-based empires were located in Europe

• global balance of power shifted to sea-based empires

• Adopted Maritime Technology: (technological causes)

• adopted from classical Greek, Islamic, and Asian worlds

  • 1. Magnetic Compass

    • first developed in China, for reckoning direction

  • 2. Astrolabe

    • enabled ships to determine lattitude and longitude by measuring stars

    • first developed by either Arabs or Greeks

  • 3. Lateen Sail

    • triangular-shaped sail, developed by Arab merchants

    • takes wind on either side, allowed for much more precise sailing

  • 4. improved Astronomical charts

    • detailed diagrams of stars and constellations, helped sailors know where they were

    • Muslims were mainly responsible for these charts, built on work of classical Greek astronomy

• Europeans did not invent these technologies, they adopted them

  • exposed to these innovations through merchant activity along the major trade routes

    • occurred thanks to Pax Mongolia

• European Innovations:

• Shipbuilding Innovations:

  • 1. Caravel (Portugal)

    • Portuguese intentionally went smaller (in last period, people thought bigger was better seen by Chinese junk) with the caravel

      • much more nimble on water

      • more navigable - able to more easily enter shallow coastal areas and navigate through inland rivers

      • equipped these ships with cannons - due to speed and agility, made good fighting ships

  • 2. Carrack (Portugal)

    • realized that dreams of empire would need to be built on trade (caravals too small)

    • much larger could carryway more cargo

    • bigger so could carry more guns, key to Portugal’s reign in the Indian Ocean Trade during this time

  • 3. Fluyt (Dutch)

    • would eventually dethrone Portuguese in Indian Ocean Trade

    • ship designed exclusively for trade

    • massive cargo holds, required much smaller crews

    • cheap to build - due to Dutch innovations in tools to build them that cut cost of production almost in half

• European sailors improved their understanding of regional wind patterns in Atlantic and Indian Oceans

Causes of European Exploration (4.2)

• technological, political, economic - causes

• 2nd cause of European imperial expansion: growth of state power

• State Sponsored Exploration - new era of sea-based empire building was state-sponsored

• big deal - result of significant changes in the distribution of power in European states

• recovering from devastation of Black Death, population growing again

• Monarchs began to consolidate power under themselves away from nobility

• European monarchs built up their militaries, learned how to use gunpowder weapons and implemented more efficient ways to tax their people. (inspired by land-based)

• a huge motivator for states sponsoring maritime exploration was the increasing desire for Asian and Southeast Asian spices, most notably, pepper

  • problem - all those land-based empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, Manchu) controlled all the land routes through which those spices passed - meant when they showed up to Europe, they were exceedingly expensive

  • so as European states began growing in power they were highly motivated to find alternative routes to trade with states on the other side of the world - began looking to the sea (European states had a big incentive to find other routes, namely sea-based routes, to Asia which would allow them to trade on their own terms)

• 1) Portugal’s trading post empire

  • geographically had no way to expand exept by the sea

  • member of royal family named Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored the first European attempts to find an all-water route into the Indian Ocean trade network

  • originally interest lay in gold trade of West Africa but by 1440s wanted to enter Indian Ocean —: established trading post empire

  • Portugal’s Motivations:

    • 1. Technology

      • Caravel, Carrack, (built for that type of exploration) Astrolabe, Magnetic Compass

    • 2. Economics

      • aware of the riches available in the trans-Saharan trade mainly in the form of Gold

      • later decided that spices was even more enticing

    • 3. Religion

      • growing desire to spread Christianity throughout the world after Portual and Spain reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims (reconquista)

      • Prince Henry also desired to find a fabled eastern Christian Monarch named Prester John (we now know its just a legend)

        • Henry thought it was true and thought it would be a hgue political and economic advantage to connect Christian states in the west to this Christian state in the East

  • result: trading post empire around Africa and eventually around the Indian Ocean

• establishing full-blown colonies were expensive, so Portuguese strategy for empire building was to establish self-sufficient trading posts in all these places whose main purpose was to facilitate trade

  • established their first major trading post in West Africa (people there were eager to trade with them, mostly Portuguese were after gold tehre)

• Vasco Degama (?) sailed around the southern tip of Africa and established trading posts all down the western and eastern coasts

  • momentous moment: travelled all the way to Calicut and discovered that the riches to be made by participating in the Indian Ocean trade network were far greater than operations around Africa

    • in subsequent voyages, the Portuguese established trading posts throughout the region all the way to Southeast Asia

      • Indian Ocean network incorporated all kinds of different mercahnts for many centuries

      • but when the Portuguese showed up, they were determined to own that netowrk - relatively easy time doing that because those caravels and carracks had plenty room for guns which gave them a huge advantage over the lightly armed ships that were regulars in that network

• 2) Spain’s Sea-Based Empire

  • Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella

  • Christopher Columbus -mariner from (??), got experience sailing fleets for the Portuguese down the African coast - had idea that it would be way quicker to access the Spice Islands of the east by sailing west across the Atlantic

    • tried to get Portuguese crown to sponsor a Westward voyage, failed, so persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella

    • October 1492 Columbus and his fleet reached the Caribbean Islands which he assumed were the spice islands of the East Indies

      • soon became apparent to other explorers that Columbus had bumped into two continents that nobody in Europe had previously known about

      • So, Spain sponsored other explorers like Ferdinand Magellan who sailed to the actual East Indies

      • began sending fleets to the Americas and conquering and colonizing

        • opened up trans-Atlantic trade - would ultimately prove more prosperous than the Indian Ocean trade

        • not uninterested in Indian Ocean trade: set up base of operations in Phillipines but instead of setting up trading posts, went full colonial over the territory and in order to establish and maintina control there, used the same methods they used int he Americas like tribute collecting and coerced labor

• Other States’ Empires

  • as Portugal and Spain’s power began to increase, other European states began sponsoring maritime exploration as well

  • Causes for Exploration:

    • 1) Political Rivalry

    • 2) Envy

    • 3) Desire for Wealth

    • 4) Need for Alternative Routes to Asia (most of all)

  • 1) France:

    • sponsored expedition seeking westward passage to the Indian Ocean (trying to find North Atlantic sea route to Asia) - didn’t find because it didn’t exist

      • establisehed precense in Canada. but, as they explored portions of North America,? they established themselves there and gained access to the incredibly lucrative fur trade with indigenous peoples in those regions

      • similar to the Portgueuse in the Indian Ocean trade since their holdings were small and mainly focused ontrade

      • eventually by 1608, Samuel Dechampage(?) established the French colony of Quebec

      • habit of dying from in large numbers from diseases and their battles with the native Iriquo (??) people —> so like the Portuguese, mainly established their precense in the form of trading pots

  • 2) England:

    • late to the game - booming textile industry was making investors lots of money, less willing to invest in risky overseas ventures

    • however, after Queen Elizabeth the First rose to power and defeated Spain’s attempts to invade England which weakened Spain significantly, she threw her support behind westward exploration

      • comissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to lead the expedition, he established England’s first colony in the Americas known as Virginia

        • kinda a disaster, but it ultimately turned around with the establishment of Jamestown in 1607

      • lacked sufficient naval power to take over subcontinent of India from the Mughal empire, so just established a few trading posts along the coast

  • 3) Dutch Republic:

    • by 1579, gained independence from Spain - in the course of that struggle, emerged as the wealthiest state in all of Europe

      • soon began competing for control of trade posts around Africa and would eventually dethrone the Portuguese as the kings of the Indian Ocean trade using their fluyts

      • by 1608, the Dutch sponsored Henry Hudson to sail west in order to establish a Dutch presence in the new world, which he did by founding the colony of New Amsterdam

      • mainly it was Dutch control of strategic locations throughoutthe Indian Ocean and their monopoly over the spice trade that increased their power and influence

The Columbian Exchange (4.3)

• definition: the transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres

• Causes:

  • Christopher Columbus - momentous contact betwen the new world and the old world that the colubian exchange began to occur

• Effects: Disease

  • transfer of disease

  • because everyone in Afro-Eurasia was connected, trading, and exposed to each others germs for many centures, they had all developed immunities to those diseases

  • when Europeans arrived in the Americas they brought disease vectors with them (rats and mosquitoes)

  • because the indigenous peoples in the Americas had never been in contact with these kinds of diseases, they ended up devastating the population

    • 1) Malaria, carried by mosquitoes, which were introduced to the Americas by enslaved Africans who were transported for plantation work - killed millions of indigenous Americans

    • 2) Measles, highly contagious and spread rapidly in densely populated areas, also killing millions

    • 3) Smallpox (most devastating) - introduced in 1518, spread through Mexico and Central America and then down into South America where it killed around half the population and in some areas up to 90% - why indigenous people refer to that event as the Great Dying

• Effects: Plants and Food

  • introduced to BOTH hemispheres

  • European settlers brought wheat, grapes, olives (staple foods of European diets)

    • also brought Asian and African foods like rice, bananas and sugars

    • while most indigenous Americans mostly retained their traditional diets, they slowly adopted some of these new foods which diversified their diets and therefore increased their lifespan

  • New world crops were transferred to Europe - maize, potatoes, manioc

    • and these new foods had a similar effect in Europe after 1700, which is to say, they diversified their diets and led to a healthier population, which then led to a significant population growth because of longer lifespans

    • some of the crops like maize were introduced to Africa and Asia

    • some of these new foods were grown as cash crops on European controlled plantations in the Americas

      • Cash Cropping: a method of agriculture in which food is grown primarily for export to other places

      • Europeans setting up colonies in the Americas found out quickly that they could get crazy rich through agriculture in the new world

        • the way they did that was by planting (usually single crops) on massive plantations that were worked by coerced laborers

        • ex. large scale operation growing sugar cane in Caribbean colonies - enslaved Africans mainly did the intensive and exhausting labor and then the sugar was exported to markets in Europe and the Middle East

  • enslaved Africans also brought new food to the Americas - okra and rice

• Effects: Animals

  • although went both ways, arguably it was the animals Europeans introduced to the Americas that had the biggest effect

  • Europeans brought domesticated animals like pigs, sheep, cattle - entirely new animals to this side of world, they had no natural predators and multiplied a lot and created the foundation for future ranching economies

  • but on the down side, all these new animals also caused some dire environmental consequences taht put significant strains on indigenous farmers

    • ex. sheep eat grass very close to the ground - large patches of grass started resembling not so much as a verdant green pasture —> erosion became a significant problem

  • one domesticated animal Europeans introduced that benefited them: horse

    • fundamentally changed the society of several indigenous peoples in North America by allowing them to more effectively hunt large herds of buffalo, which was a staple food item for them

Sea-Based Empires Established (establishment of Maritime empires) (4.4)

• European trade ascendency:

• motivations for European states developing Maritime Empires: Gold, God, Glory which also created rivalries

• motivations for Imperialism:

  • 1. to enrich themselves

  • 2. to spread Christianity

  • 3. be the greatest state

• 1. Portuguese - first to establish a trading post empire around Africa and throughout the Indian Ocean

  • largely able to do this by noticing that many of hte average merchant ships in the area were pretty lightly armed, so the Portuguese loaded their caravels and carracks with giant guns

  • once the Portuguese inserted themselves into this trading network, they weren't as interested in participating peacefully as they were in owning and controlling it by force

• 2. Spain - early on set their base of operations in the Philipines

  • while the Portuguese were generally content to set up and run small trading posts in these various places, the Spanish went ahead and established full-blown colonies

  • Spanish ran their colonies in the Americas namely through tribute systems, taxation, and coerced labor - used the exact same tactics in their colonial holdings throughout the Indian Ocean

• 3. Dutch - with their fluyts, they took over as the “kings” of the Indian Ocean trade, deposing the Portuguese quickly

  • Dutch used many of the same methods as the Portuguese to establish their dominance and control over this trade network

• 4. British - later, would end up controlling the largest sea-based empire in the world, but they had trouble getting started

  • interested in India, but lacked sufficient military power to take it from the Mughal empire

    • satisfied themselves with setting up a few trading posts along the coast

    • later in the 18th century, the British would gradually transform those trading posts into full-blown colonial rule in India (Dutch did the same in Indonesia)

• although European domination of the Indian Ocean trade introduced a significant change, there was also significant continuity

• Continuity in trade:

  • The Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian, and SE Asian merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of the Europeans continued to use it

    • also, European entrance into the trade network increased profits not only for Europeans but also for many of those merchants who had always used this network for trade

  • long established merchants like the Gujaratis in the Mughal Empire continued to make use of the Indian Ocean Trade even while Europeans sought to dominate it, and in doing so they increased their power and wealth

• Asian Resistance

  • 1. Tokugawa Japan

    • by the early 1600s, Japan which had previously been weakened by a lot of internal fracturing, was united under a shogun from the Tokugawa Clan (Tokugawa Ieyasu)

    • while the shogun was initially kind of open to trading with Europeans (interested in trading for gunpowder weapons), he soon realized they were a threat to the hard won unification they had just achieved

    • many European merchants and explorers weren’t just content to buy and sell goods from these various places; many also sought to convert those various peoples to Christianity

    • so, by the second half of the 16th century, lots of Japanese people had converted to Christianity, and that seemed to the shogun like a recipe for a renewed cultural fracturing

      • so, expelled all Christian missionaries from Japan and suppressed the faith within Japan often with violence

      • almost completely isoalted Japan from the growing influence of Euroepan commerce, only maintaining trade with the Dutch

  • 2. Ming China

    • voyages of Zheng He took place

    • among the many motives for the voyages of Zheng He, among the most important was to essentially create a situation in which most of the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean was processed through the Chinese state

      • (ultimately it didn’t work and the result was a series of isolationist trade policies that largely shut down sea based trade in China)

    • when the Portuguese came to China in the early 1500s to trade, they were only able to do so through bribery and various underhanded tactics

    • but soon, Ming officials found out and expelled them, which further isolated China from the growing European dominance in the Indian Ocean

• Expansion of African States

  • 1. Asante Empire in West Africa

    • key trading partner with the Portuguese and later the British by providing highly desired goods like gold, ivory, enslaved laborers

      • this economic partnership made the Asante rich and enabled them to expand their military and further expand and consolidate their power throughout the region

      • kinda like a bonus, the Asante used that power in military might to later repel the British from colonizing the region for a long time

  • 2. Kingdom of the Kongo in South Africa

    • made strong diplomatic ties to the Portuguese traders who were highly desirous to obtain gold, copper, enslaved laborers,

      • in order to further facilitate this growing economic relationship, the king converted to Christianity as did most of the nobles

      • relationship later deteriorated, stil taht economic connection between Portugal and kingdom of the Kongo massively enriched the African states

• Economic and Labor Systems

  • Europeans were building empires in the Americas

    • in the Americas, colonial economies were largely structured around agriculture

    • in order to keep this argicultural economy working, Europeans made use of both existing labor systems and introduced new labor systems

  • Existing labor systems:

    • the Spanish made use of the old Inca mit’a system

    • the Inca developed this system in which subjects of the empire were required to provide labor for state projects for a certain number of days per year

    • when the Spanish showed up to these areas, they were excited when they discovered the amount of silver buried in the hills

    • so, needed to figure out how to get enough laborers to dig all that silver out of the mountains, when they learned about mit'a system they used it

    • the Spanish implemented the mit'a system largely for their massive silver mining operations

  • New labor systems:

    • 1. Chattel Slavery

      • enslaved Africans were transported by the millions throughout the Americas mainly in order to work on sprawling plantations

      • chattel = property

      • laborers were owned as any other piece of property was owned and could be used at the will of the owner

      • what was new: race-based

        • slavery became hereditary - children of enslaved people would become enslaved themselves

    • 2. Indentured Servitude

      • an indenture (?) was a contract that a laborer would sign which bound them to a particular work for a particular period of time, usually 7 years

      • many poorer Europeans entered this kind of agreement in order to pay for their pasage to the colonies and then after their indenture was up, they could go free and live their lives

    • 3. Encomienda System

      • Spanish who made this form of labor up

      • used to coerce indigenous Americans into working for colonial authorities

        • essentially, indigenous people were forced to provide labor for the Spanish in exchange for food and protection

          • similar in a lot of ways to the old system of feudalism in Europe

          • wasn’t that materially different from slavery

    • 4. Hacienda System

      • also from the Spanish

      • haciendas (?) were large agricultural estates owned by elite Spaniards and on which indigenous laborers were forced to work the fields whose crops were then exported and sold on a global market

        • difference between hacienda and encomienda:

          • encomienda was more focused on controlling the population while hacienda was more focused on economics of food export

  • Development of Slavery

    • demonstrated both continuity and change

    • Continuity:

      • 1. African slave trade

        • African slave trade was not a new development that came with the rise of these martime empires

        • way before this period, the trade of enslaved African people was a regular feature in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean networks

      • 2. Cultural Assimilation

        • enslaved people of those networks were often assimilated into the culture in which they were sold

      • 3. Domestic Work

        • in the Islamic world, the majority of enslaved Africans became domestic servants in households and for those roles, the demand was very high for enslaved women and girls

      • 4. Slaves held power

        • in some cases in the Islamic world, enslaved people could hold significant military or political positions

      • all these realities continued during the rise and establishment of Maritime empires

    • Change:

      • mostly occured in Americas

      • 1. Agricultural Work

        • because the main economic engine of imperial empires in the Americas was difficult agricultural work, Europeans purchased male slaves 2:1 which significantly impacted the demographics of various African states

      • 2. Trans-Atlantic Trade Larger

        • much more massive than its Indian Ocean and Mediterranean counterparts

      • 3. Racial Prejudice (racial component of the Atlantic slave trade)

        • in the Americas, slavery became identified with blackness which justified the brutality of slavery

        • to be identified as black was to be less than human, this meant that plantation owners could treat their workers with violence and keep a clear conscience

Economics of Empire Building (4.5)

• how Maritime empires were maintained and developed from 1450 to 1750

• economic strategies to consolidate and maintain power

• 3rd cause of European expoloration: economic

  • 1. Mercantilism

    • the dominant economic system in Europe at this period

    • a state-driven economic system that emphasizes the buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade

    • defined wealth by minerals - gold, silver

      • therefore, the more someone has (a bigger slice of pie), the less there is for others

      • creates profound competition

      • main goal was to maintain a favorable balance of trade - merchants wanted more exports than imports (organized their economies around exports and avoid imports as much as possible)

        • since exporting goods means gold and silver comes in, importing goods - gold and silver go out

        • mercantilism was a powerful motivation for establishing and growing empires because, among many other reasons, once a colony was established, it created a kind of closed market to purchase exports from the imperial parent country

          • so more colonies means more people buying a state’s goods which means more mineral wealth is coming back

  • 2. Joint-Stock Companies

    • a limited liability business, often charted by the state, which was funded by a group of investors

      • limited liability - investors could only lose the money they invested in the business

      • charted by the state - a government approved this business and in doing so often granted it trade monopolies in various regions

      • funded by a group - a big innovation in how businesses were funded as they were privately funded, not state-funded

    • in order for mercantilism to be an instrument of imperial expansion, the state and its merchants had become intimately tied together in a kind of mutual interdependence

      • the state used merchants to expand its influence in far off lands while merchants relied on the state to keep their interest and activity safe while granting them monopolies in various regions of trade

      • 

      • so, joint-stock companies became the main tool by which this mutual arrangement led to expanding empires during this period

      • its the states that primarily use joint-stock companies prospered during this period while those that stuck with state-sponsored voyages/exporation like Portugal and Spain were gradually decreasing in power and influence

      • Dutch East India Company:

        • chartered in 1602 by the Dutch state who subsequently granted the company a monopoly on trade in the Indian Ocean

        • as the Dutch edged out the Portuguese in that network, 2 things happened:

          • 1. the company's investors became exceedingly rich

          • 2. the Dutch imperial government was able to expand its power and influence across many places throughout the Indian Ocean

      • the French and British also developed joint-stock companies of their own for similar purposes, namely trade and imperial expansion

        • led to growing rivalry around the pie which sometimes led them to war as it did in the Anglo Dutch war (attacks on each others trading ports and ships)

        • by way of contrast, while the French, British and Dutch were joint-stocking their way to world domination, states like Spain and Portugal were mainly funding their trade and imperial ventures through the state

          • one big reason why their influence on the world stage was declining during this period

• trade networks: Change and Continuity

  • Change:

    • 1. Atlantic System

      • the movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the eastern and western hemispheres

      • this whole network of exchange didn’t exist until Spain sent Christopher Columbus sailing west, but once it was established, it was significant

    • 2. Importance of Sugar

      • one of the goods exchanged

      • colonial plantations, especially in the Caribbean, specialized in the growth of sugar cane, and without abundance of sugar, prices began to decrease and demand for sugar increased over in Europe

    • 3. Silver was King

      • ex. in modern day Bolivia, the Spanish heavily exploited a massive silver mine in Potosi, as well as in mines in other colonies

      • that silver was tranported back to Spain, and from there, injected into the wider European economy and used to purchase goods from Asia which had twofold effect: (Effects of Sugar)

        • 1. Satisfied Chinese Demand for Silver

          • growing demand that was satisfied, which further developed the commercialization of their economy

        • 2. Increased profits

          • the goods silver purchased in Asian markets like silk, porcelain, and steel, were traded across the Atlantic system resulting in more profits

    • 4. Coerced Labor

      • 1. Forced Indigenous Labor (in their colonial holdings)

        • ex. Spanish

      • 2. Indentured Servitude

        • ex. Britain

      • 3. Enslaved Africans

        • ex. nearly all imperial powers

      • all of this was established and maintained by the global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by heads of state to charter companies usually joint-stock companies

    • The Atlantic system of trade turned European states into the political and geographical equivalent of pie hogging

  • Continuity:

    • 1. Afro-Eurasian markets thrived

      • regional markets across Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish and increase their reach during this period right at the same time

        • even though Europeans were increasingly dominating the Indian Ocean network because of their naval superiority (both in ships and in weaponry), all the various merchants who had always traded in this network from the Middle East all the way to Southeast Asia continued to trade and even benefited from the increased merchant traffic

    • 2. Asian Land Routes

      • despite the growing European dominance on the sea, overland routes like the Silk Roads almost entirely controlled by Asian land-based powers, notably Ming China, and then the Qing Dynasty

    • 3. Peasant and Artisan Labor

      • continued and intensified

  • before, peasants were usually subsistence farmers (grew only what they needed to survive)

    • however, with the increasing demand for goods facilitated by new connectionsand global trade, peasants produced more and more agricultural goods for distant markets

      • ex. as demand for cotton increased throughout Europe, peasant farmers in eSouth Asia increased their production for export, and in many cases increased their standard of living

  • artisans: skilled laborers who made goods by hand

    • as European demand increased for goods like silk, clothing from China and rugs from the Middle East, artisans got busy increasing their production

• Social Effects:

  • African Slave Trade:

    • 1. Gender Imbalance

      • because much of the wealth to be gained in the Americas was driven by agriculture, especially highly intensive agriculture, like sugarcane production, the vast majority of enslaved laborers purchased were male

    • 2. Changed Family Structures (from points 1)

      • because many West African states were being depelted of their male population, that led to an increase in polygyny (practice of men marrying more than one woman)

    • 3. Cultural Synthesis (int he Americas)

      • enslaved Africans came from various states and cultures, and spoke various languages.

      • but, when they arrived in the Americas, it only took about a generation for them to cease speaking their own languages and adopt creole langauges (mixed languages)

      • vasrious creole languages were developed as a synthesis of Europeana dn African languages and in some cases, indigenous languages

• Changing Belief Systens:

  • Spanish and Portuguese Christianity (Catholic Christianity) in South America

    • Spain and Portugal not only interested inbuilding empires but also in making sure everyone in the world worshiped Jesus

    • both sent Catholic missionaries to their colonies , and in doing so used the church as an insstrument to spread Christianity among the indigenous populations

    • in this way, European languages and cultures was introduced or in many cases imposed upon indigenous populations

    • and because the church made prodigious use of the printing press, these ideas spread rapidly throughout their colonial holdings

    • success rate was spotty at best

    • ins ome cases, indigenous groups outwardly adopted Christianity, but privately continued to practice their own religious beliefs

      • when this was discovered, met witih violent retailiation from colonial authorities

      • some missionaries like Domincan priest B las casas who made great efforts to protect indigenous Americans from the abuse of colonial authorities

        • his efforts led to new legislation outlawing the snalvement of indigenous Americans and limiting the forms of coerced labor they could participate in

    • at the end of the day, even though widepsread conversion was their aim, it was slow progress and that sluggishness led to a syncretic blending of Christianity and Native belief systems

    • additionally, enslaved Africans brought their native bleief systems with them as well, including Islam and even more blending occured

Challenges to State Power (4.6)

• As European states expanded their maritime empires, they faced opposition from various groups.

  Resistance to Imperial Expansion

  • Opposition: not everyone was happy about the expansion of SE-based Empires

  • Reasons: states were trying expand their maritime empires: increased efforts to centralize their power in order to maintain economic and political control over their global possessions, leading to dissatisfaction among people in their home countries and colonized populations

  Local Resistance

  • The Fronde (France) (started in 1648)

    • Context: French monarch Louis XIV was the poster boy for absolutism (new political doctrine in which monarchs consolidated almost all power under themselves), consolidating power beneath himself, also had appetite for endless wars of expansion

      • wars of expansion don’t pay for themself - several new edicts were passed that increased taxation among French subjects, and so the French nobility, whose power had been under threat from the growing power of the monarchy, led peasants in spontaneous rebellions, known as the Fronde.

    • Cause: increased taxation among French subjects to fund wars of expansion

    • Result: six years of spontaneous rebellions by French nobility and peasants, ultimately crushed by the monarchy which also increased in power

  • Queen Ana Nzinga's Resistance (Africa)

    • Context: Queen Nzinga ruled over the sub-Saharan kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba, concerned about relentless Portuguese merchants' encroachment in West Africa

    • thus, allied with the Dutch and the Kingdom of Kongo to fight back the Portuguese armies, successfully driving them out

  • The Pueblo Revolt (North America)

    • Context: Pueblo people suffered terrible abuses as a result of oppressive Spanish missionary efforts, Pueblo were forced into coerced labor for Spanish projects and suffered the effects of disease, and as a result their population declined to about 25% of precolonial numbers

    • 1680, the Pueblo organized under a local leader named Pope and violently rebelled against the Spanish, killing many missionaries and leaders, temporarily ejecting them from their lands (decade later, Spanish returned in power and regained control over the region)

  • summary: because of the relentless efforts of European states to expand their empires and consolidate power under themselves, the various groups that suffered the effects of that expansion resisted, sometimes successfully, sometimes unsuccessfully.

  Resistance from the Enslaved

  • Purpose: the imperial project in the Americas was largely ordered around agriculture and the export of cash crops like sugar, rice, and tobacco

  • Method: to that end, millions of enslaved Africans were purchased and transported across the Middle Passage and inserted into the brutal and coercive machine of agricultural output

  Enslaved Resistance

  • Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil)

  • most of the European colonies that majored in enslaved labor for agricultural work, there was usually a small population of free blacks (mainly made up of runaway slaves)

    • Definition: communities of free blacks where enslaved Africans would sometimes run away and join, especially in the Caribbean and Brazil, not surprising because since the vast majority of the enslaved arried in these two destinations (because of the exceedingly harsh conditions of plantation labor, ensalved Afircans sometimes ran away and joined these communities of free blacks which were known as maroon societies)

    • Significance: European societies were not okay with maroon societies: especially since the presence of Maroon communities served as an endless enticement for their workers to abandon the fields and flee

    • Example: in Jamaica, British colonial authorities tried to crush the maroon communities, but they fought back and ultimately because these maroon communities were located deep in the interior and well fortified by natural features like mountains and thick forests, the colonial militia failed to wipe them out. so, signed a treaty in 1738 recognizing their freedom

  • The Stono Rebellion of 1739 (British colonies in North America)

    • Context: British colonies in North America, particularly South Carolina, had a major agricultural operation specializing in rice and indigo export. very lucrative, Britian sent a ton of enslaved workers until an overwhelmingly amount of hta tcolony were enslaved

    • Cause: enslaved Africans, suffering under abuses, 100 enslaved persons stormed the local armory and traveled through the countryside, killing their enslavers indiscriminately

    • Result: the local militia crushed the rebellion, but it struck fear into the slaveholding colonies
      

Changing Social Hierarchies (4.7)

Responses to Ethnic Diversity

Throughout the period of 1450-1750, various states responded to ethnic diversity in different ways, ranging from expulsion to relative tolerance.

Spain and Portugal (expulsion side)

• different kinds of treatment the Jews experienced in various states

• Expulsion: (treatment of Jews by Spain and Portugal) by 1492, Spain had completed the Reconquista which was a centuries long effort to rid the Iberian Peninsula of Muslim rule. (CONTEXT). anyway in that year, Spainish forces defeated the Muslims at Grenada and that meant they finally re-established Christianity as the official relgigion of the region. so, with all the Muslims gone, the Spanish Crown started looking around for who else could pose a threat to Christian domination and focused on the Jews. Spain issued a decree expelling all Jews from their kingdom in 1492, fearing that converted Jews (Jews who converted to Chirstianity) would be tempted to renounce their Christianity if any Jews remained to influence them. so, many of these Jews fled to Portugal to seek refuge there, but got kicked out again.

• Portugal: After a marriage alliance with the Spanish Crown, Portugal likewise expelled Jews from their land.

Ottoman Empire (relative tolerance side)

• Relative tolerance: hearing the news of the Jewish expulsion, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II opened his empire to displaced Jews, allowing them to immigrate. and because of the relative tolerance of the Ottomans towards the Jews, some of them rose to prominence in the Ottoman court while others contributed to the ecnomic and cultural environemnt.

• "relative" tolerance does not mean Jews enjoyed full equality under Ottoman rule

• Restrictions: because they were not Muslims, Jews were required to pay the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and were only permitted to live in designated parts of urban areas.

The Qing Dynasty (Qing repression of Han, somewhere in the middle closer to expulsion tho)

• Discrimination: The Qing dynasty, established by the Manchu people (outsiders). and although the Manchu rulers took some pains to adopt certain trappings of traditional Chinese culture, most notably some Confucian principles of leadership, they made a sharp division between ethnic Manchu and Han people in their empire.

• Restrictions: for example, the Manchu rulers retained the civil service examination to staff their imperial bureaucracy, but reserved the highest positions for Manchu people, barring Han people from these positions.

• Humiliation: all Han men were required to wear their hair in traditional braided queues of the Manchu, but the imposition of this hairstyle was a humiliation for the ethnic Han because it was a constant reminder of their foreign domination.

The Mughal Empire (close to tolerance)

• Tolerance: Under the leadership of Akbar the Great, ethnic and religious minorities enjoyed a profound tolerance. he refused to implement the jizya (though it would later be reintroduced)

• Funding: Akbar funded the construction of churches for Catholics, temples for Hindus, and mosques for Muslims.

Rise of New Elites

• and so, in terms of social hierarchies, the new economic opportunities of increasing global trade and the increased political power of imperial ventures led to the rise of new political elites.

• Spanish Casta System: In the Americas. almost none of the traditional Spanish nobility migrated to the new world. tehrefore, the most powerful conquistadors who established Spain’s empire in the new world, worked to impose a new social hierarchy on the peoples there. result was the casta system, which organized their colonial society into a ranked social hierarchy based on race and heredity.

• peninsulares: those born on the Iberian peninsula,

• creoles: those of European descent but were born in the new world (new political elites)

• under both were the castas, which grouped all the reminaing members of society based on race and ethnicity

• mestizos: people of European and indigenous ancestry

• mulattoes: people of European and African ancestry

• Native Americans and enslaved Africans at the very bottom

• importnat to remember: prior to the imposing of the casta system, natie peoples were part of a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups. but the casta system erased much of that cultural complexity and ordered their society by the standards of a small minoirty of spanish elites

The Decline of Existing Elites (Sturggles of Existing Elites

1. Russian Boyars

• Decline: The Russian Boyars made up the aristocratic land-owning classes in Russia and they exerted greaet power in the administration of the empire of centuries. but, when Peter the Great rose to power, (idea of absolutism) and took all kinds of measures to remove power from the boyars and consolidated power under himself.

• the boyars protested this curtailment of their power

• Abolition: Peter abolished the rank of Boyar in Russia and required anyone who wanted employment in the Russian bureaucracy to serve the state directly. so hierarchical power of hte boyars had officially waned

2. Ottoman Timars

• Decline: Timars were land grants made by the Ottoman state to an aristocratic class in payment for service to the govenrment, usually military service.

• the aristocrats who controlled the timars grew exceedingly rich and powerful through txation of the people living on those parcels of land.

• however, by the 16th century, Ottoman Sultans becgan increasingly taking over these timars and converting them to tax farms that directed revenue directly to the state.

• Powerlessness: Existing Elites in the Ottoman Empire found themselves powerless, landless, and struggling to survive.

Unit 5: Revolutions (1750-1900)

The Enlightenment (5.1)

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding, such as rationalism, and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships.

The Enlightenment provided the ideological framework for all of those revolutions/upheavals that occurred (American Rev, French Rev, Haitian Rev, Latin American Rev)

1. Rationalism

Rationalism argues that reason, rather than emotion or any external authority, is the most reliable source of true knowledge.

Definition of Empiricism

2. Empiricism

Empiricism describes the idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly through rigorous experimentation.

The Enlightenment built upon the emperical and rationalistic ways of thinking developed during the Scientific Revolution in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. During that revolution, scientists tossed bilical and religious authority out the window and used the rigorous process of reason to discover how the world really worked. Scientists like Galileo and Newton used reason to discover how the world works, and thus experienced scientific breakthroughs and understanding of the complexities of the cosmos and the human body.

the enlightenment was really just an extension of that same kind of scientific and rationalistic thinking but enlightenment philosophers applied those methods to the study of human society

one of the crucial components to the Enlightenment was the questioning and re-examination of the role of religion in public life

Enlightenment began in Europe wher emost people were Christians and the churchw as an instrument of state power

problem with a religion like Christianity according to Enlightenment thinkers: Christianity is a revealed religion which means the words of the Bible along with all its commands were revealed by God and therefore could not be questioned

englithenement represnted a significant shift of athority carried over fromthe Scientific Revolution from outside a person to inside a person

The Enlightenment philosophers applied these methods to the study of human society, leading to new ways of relating to the divine and the development of several key ideas:

New Belief Systems:

• Deism: exceedingly popular among Enlightenment thinkers

  • Deists believed that there was a God who created the world (all things) and then no longer intervened in the created order.

• Atheism: The complete rejection of religious belief and any notion of divine being.

New Enlightenment Ideas:

Political ideas:

• Individualism: The phenomenon that the most basic element of society is the individual human, not collective groups.

  • therefore, the progress and expansion of the individual over against the society was a key tenant

• Natural Rights: The concept/idea that individual humans are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by governments or any other entity.

  • John Locke argued that each human being was born with the natural rights of life, liberty, and property and that those rights were endowed by God. thus, those rights can not be taken away by a monarch.

• Social Contract: The idea that human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct governments of their own will, and the main purpose of that government is to protect their natural rights.

  • by consequence, if that government becomes tyrranical that tramples on the rights of the people, then those people have the right to overthrow that government and establish a new one

Effects of Enlightenment Ideas

The Enlightenment ideas created the ideological context for major revolutions that occurred during this period, including:

• The American Revolution

• The French Revolution

• The Haitian Revolution

• The Latin American Revolutions

The Enlightenment's emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how political power ought to work played a significant role in each of these great upheavals.

These revolutions, in turn, created the conditions for the intensification of:

• Nationalism: A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked with a desire for territory.

• Expansion of Suffrage: The right to vote was granted to more people, including all white males, and later, black males.

  • so for example, after the Amerrican revolution onlhy landed white males could vote but in the first half of the 19th century, laws were passed to recognize the right of all white males to vote.and then in the second half of the 19th century, black males had gained the right to vote

  • 1 significant reason that expansion: Enlightenment ideas like liberty and equality were revered in Ameirca as part of the cultural heritage beginning with the Declaration of Independence

• Abolition of Slavery: The abolition of slavery in some places, like Britain, which gained wealth during the Industrial Revolution.

  • Enlightenment thinkers criticize slavery on accout of its complete disregard for people's natural rights, most notably liberty. so in response to a powerful abolitionist movement, Great Britain abolished slavery in 1807. but, britiain was also the wealthiest nation in the world, and they gained much of that welth during the Industiral revoltuion by means of paid labor ( so abolition was a natural move, but it was also making economic sense at the time)

  • enslaved people themselves also contributed to the abolitionist movement. ex. in 1831, a massive slave rebellion known as the Great Jamaica Revolt occured in British Jamaica. the scale and the casualties of htat rebellion played a significant role in Britain’s decision to abolish slavery

• End of Serfdom: The abolition of serfdom in some places, as peasants became more and more unnecessary to economic flourishing during the Industrial Revolution.

  • in the midst of the transition from an agricultural economy to an industrial economy during the Industrial Revolution, serfs (which were peasants bound in coerced labor) became more and more unnessary to ecomomic flourishing

  • peasant revolts in various places induced state leaders in England, France and Russia to abolish serfdom

• Calls for Women's Suffrage: The increasing calls for women's rights, including the right to vote, led to the rise of feminist movements.

  • despite revolutionary movements and thier basis in Enlightenment ideas like equality, women in Europe and the U.S. did not share int he harvest of liberty, especially in terms of voting rights.

  • during this period, burgeoning feminist movement arose and women began to demand equality in all areas of life

  • ex. French activist Olympe De Gouges - harshly criticized the French constitution for sidelining women in the birth of post-revolutionary France. alsoin the U.S., women organizeed themsleves at the gatheringat the Seneca Falls convention in 1848 to call for a constitionalal admenemtn that recgonized women’s right to vote.

Nationalism and Revolutions (5.2)

Rise of Nationalism 🌎

Causes of Revoltions: 1. Nationalism

The first cause of revolutions was the rise of nationalism, which describes a sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, shared religion, shared social customs, and often a desire for territory.

This was a new development during this period, because for most of human history, large states incorporated many diverse peoples within their borders (ottomans, mongols). none of those empires were associated with a singualr people that shared an ethnicity or language. However, during this period, the notion that a people who shared a culture and a history and ethnicity ought to dwell in their own territory and rule themselves was becoming increasingly strong.

Some states actually tried to use this growing nationalistic fervor to their advantage in order to foster a sense of unity among their people. They did this by:

• Injecting nationalist themes into their schools

• Emphasizing public rituals that glorify the nation and its culture

• Pushing people into military service

For example, Russian leaders required the Russian language to be spoken throughout their territorial holdings in order to create a sense of unity among the various ethnicities under the authority of the state. However, that attempt at nationalistic unity through language backfired in places like Ukraine and Poland and Finland, each of which had their own languages that identified them as a people. The imposition of Russian only created a more powerful counter-nationalism against Russian authority in those places.

2. Political dissent

The second cause of revolutions was a widespread discontent with monarchist and imperial rule. It's a general rule of history that people don't like getting squashed under the thumb of Big Daddy government.

• Examples of this discontent include:

  • The Safavid Empire's attempt to impose harsh new taxes, which was met with rebellion from various militaristic nomadic groups on the edges of the empire.

    • that resistance led to the weakening of the Safavid state, so much that in the early 18th century outside invaders officially put an end to the empire

  • The Wahhabi movement, which sought to reform the corrupted form of Islam endemic in the Ottoman Empire. That, combind with other problems, contributed to the long decline of the Ottoman

3. New Ways of Thinking

The third cause of Revolution was the development of new ideologies and systems of government. Enlightenment thinkers like Locke and Rousseau conceived of a new kind of governmental structure at the center of which was the concept of popular sovereignty (1).

"Popular sovereignty argues that the power to govern is in the hands of the people themselves, and that naturally means that government should be characterized by democracy."

2- democracy - in order to exercise that power, peoplemust have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government

3- liberalism, which was an economic and political ideology that emphasized:

• Protection of civil rights

• Necessity of a representative government

• Protection of private property

• Economic freedom

Major Atlantic Revolutions 🌊

all were inspired by democratic ideals

1. American Revolution (began in 1776) 🇺🇸

The short story goes like this: the British had established 13 colonies in North America on the Atlantic coast, and because Britain was so far removed from these colonies (due to the ocean beetween them), they pretty much developed a culture, system of government, and economic framework without interference from Britain. However, after the 7 Years War (part of which was fought on the North American continenet), Britain's war debts were substantial, and that's when Britain decided to clamp down on those colonies and get them to help pay for that war with a flurry of new taxes.

• It's all because of the stiff imposition of new taxes, the curtailment of various freedoms that colonists had previously enjoyed, and a widespread adoption of Enlightenment principles of government that the American Revolution began.

• Those Enlightenment principles are on full display in the Declaration of Independence, which is positively overflowing with ideas of popular sovereignty, natural rights, and the social contract.

• With substantial help from France, the Americans won the war, and the United States was born in 1783.

this victory was a real big deal because it provided the template for other nations throughout the world for a successful overthrow of oppressive power and the establishment of a republican style govenrment.

2. French Revolution (began in 1789) 🇫🇷

Remember that France played a big part in the American Revolution, and as French soldiers returned home from war, many of them were inflamed with ideals of democracy and started looking at their own stupid absolutist king with suspicion. So when Louis XVI attempted to tighten his control over France in order to pay his own enormous war debts, the people of France rebelled and went ahead and overthrew the government and established a republic.

• Enlightenment principles likewise undergirded the main document of this revolution, namely the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which elegantly championed the ideas of natural rights and popular sovereignty.

3. Haitian Revolution (began in 1791) 🇭🇹

Haiti was the colonial property of France, and it happened to be the most prosperous colony in the whole dang world. So when the Island's majority enslaved black population heard about French revolutionaries calling for Liberty and equality, they were thought it was pretty cool,

• Under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, the enslaved Haitians revolted and eventually defeated the French, establishing the second republic in the Western Hemisphere after the United States and the first black government in this region.

4. Latin American Revolutions (Many) 🌎

So Spanish and Portuguese colonies throughout Central and South America were similarly influenced by Enlightenment ideas and began to resent the increasing control their Imperial parents were exerting upon them.

• This resentment was especially present in the Creole class, which was made up of those who were of European heritage but were born in the Americas.

• On the racial hierarchy in the Americas, that put them in the second position below the peninsulares, who were European also but were born in Europe.

• Creoles were kind of like the Kirkland's brand of colonial authority, and they were none too happy about Peninsulares getting most of the political power.

• In 1808, Napoleon's invasion of Spain and deposition of the Portuguese monarch created an unstable political situation in the American colonies, and that created the occasion for the revolution in Latin America.

• So Creole military leaders like Simón Bolívar appealed to colonial subjects across racial lines with Enlightenment ideals, which he summarized in his letter from Jamaica, and that document just like the other revolutionary documents we've considered contained appeals to popular sovereignty and the right to self-rule among the various Spanish colonies.

• so, through a series of long and protracted wars, one Latin American colony after one another won its independence and many of them formed rebpuclican governments

Other Nationalist Movements 🌈

While nationalism was a prime factor in the full-blown revolutions we just talked about, there were also many other nationalist movements that resulted not in revolution but for calls for a higher degree of self-rule in some cases and national unification in other cases.

Propaganda Movement in the Philippines 🇵🇭

• Spanish colony - impoesd a similar racial hierarchy here as they did in their Ameircan colonies

• The Spanish tightly controlled opportunities for education in this colony, and that meant that many of the wealthier Creoles and mestizos traveled to Europe for a university education. (only the wealty Creoles and mestizos got universtiy education)

• When they got there, Europe was awash in nationalist and Enlightenment ideas, and some of those Filipino students absorbed those ideas and brought them right on home.

• They started publishing these ideas like mad, and even though they weren't calling for independence from Spain, the Spanish authorities knew where that kind of thinking could lead. thus, they sought to supress that mvoement

• As a result, the Philippine Revolution broke out at the end of the century.

Unification of Italy and Germany 🇮🇹🇩🇪

• Nationalism played a major role in the unification of Italy and Germany.

• Before and during this period, both Italy and Germany were made up of dozens of fragmented states.

• Under the influence of nationalism, military leaders from both nations inspired their respective populations to come together and unify each place under a single government.

• Through a combination of diplomacy and deft military tactics, this nationalist fervor resulted in the unification of these fragmented regions.

  
  

How the Industrial Revolution Began (5.3)

Definition

The Industrial Revolution describes the process by which states transition from primarily agrarian economies to industrial economies.

In simpler terms, it was a transition from goods being made by hand to being made by machines.

The Industrial Revolution fundamentally changed the world's balance of political power, reordered societies, and made industrial nations rich.

Why Great Britain Came First:

Britain was the first country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, around 1750. Here are the seven factors that contributed to this:

1. Proximity to waterways: not only was it an island, but Britain's abundance of rivers and canals enabled efficient transportation of manufactured goods to various markets.

2. Geographical distribution of coal and iron: the first phase o fhte Industiral Revolution woudl be powered by the burning of coal. Britain had large reserves of coal buried beneath their soil. coal power enablrd britain’s increased efficiency in the production of iron, which was used to construct bridges, machines, and railroads. all of which contributed to their rapid industrailization.

3. Abundant access to foreign resources: Britain's massive Maritime Empire provided access to raw materials such as timber from North America and cotton from India.

4. Improved agricultural productivity: prior to the Industrial Revolution, many places in Europe, especially Britain, experienced an agricultural revolution in which the amount of food grown on farms increased significantly. led to an increase in food production, allowing for a larger population and workforce.

   1. Agricultural Revolution: occured because of inproved methods of planting like 1. crop rotation, which kept part of the land unplanted, so the fertility of the soil would be maintained. 2. new tech like the seed drill, ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently and accurately which led to less waste and greater harvests. also, new foods entering form the columbian exchange also contributed.

   2. the potato was introduced to Europe from the Americas and this highly caloric food diversified their diets, especially among impoverished folks in rural areas, and that in turn made them healthier and increased thier life expectancy. increase in life span—>msasive spike inpopulation of Great Britain right before Industrail revolution

5. Rapid urbanization: since farming was becoming more and more mechanized and thus more efficient, less people were required to work on the fields. at the very same time as rural farmers were looking for new jobs, several cities in Britain were becoming hubs of Industrial manufacturing and needed human labor. led to a massive rural-to-urban migration of people looking for jobs, so these industrial cities grew very fast.

6. Legal protection of private property: Britain's laws protected entrepreneurs who took risks to start and build new businesses in the manufacturing sector. unique and that significantly contributed to Britain’s headstart in industrialization because entreprenueurs felt safe to risk investment to start new businesses.

7. Accumulation of capital: Wealth gained through the Atlantic slave trade —> britian had lots of rich folks who had excess capital (called capitalists) with all that extra money, invested in startup industrial businesses that beecame the backbone of the Industrail revolution.

The Factory System

once the process of industrailization began, a new kind of enviornment for that industrial work was developed - the facotry system

definition of factory: a palce where goods for sale were mass-produced by machines

the first iteration of the factory concentrated production in a single location and powered by moving water thanks to the invetion of the water frame

in textile factories, this was connected to a machine called the spinning jenny, which operated looms that created textiles way faster than they could be by hand. and because these machinse didnt require any particular skill to operate, a specialization of labor began to occur: prior to the mass production methods of the Industrial revoltuion, goods were made by artisans who had performed every step of their craft with hard-learned skill, but now workers performed one action over and over again, becoming easily replaceable.

The Spread of Industrialization (5.4)

The Effect of Steampower:

it was the development of a new technology that rapidly increased the spread of industrailization - the steam engine

The development of the steam engine, a machine that converts fossil fuel into mechanical energy, rapidly increased the spread of industrialization. This innovation allowed factories to be built anywhere, not just on the banks of rivers, and enabled mass-produced goods to be transported further and faster to distant markets.

the first kinds of factories were waterpowered, which means that they had to be built on the banks of fast moving water, but with the introduction of the steam engine, coal and steam could make industrial machines work and that means a facotyr could be built anywhere. with that restriction gone, the pace of the industrial revoliton increasedd rapidly.

not only that, but they put steam engines in ships (steamship) which meant that mass-produced goods could be transported further and faster to distant markets and that further connected the world into a growing global economy

Industrialization Spreads Unevenly (Shifting World Economies)

Some places industrialized quickly, while others industrialized slowly. The difference in adoption rates can be explained by the degree to which each place had factors that enabled industrialization, (the 7 things Britain had)

• Abundant coal deposits

• Favorable government policies

• Access to waterways

• Lack of powerful groups opposing industrialization (e.g., nobility)

Places with many or all of these factors industrialized quickly, while those with few or none industrialized slowly.

Many places in eastern and sourthern Europe lacked abundant coal deposits, land locked without easy acces s to to waterways, or else hindered by historically powerful groups like the nobility who didnt want their power challenged by new economic arrangement.

The Division of the World into Industrialized and Non-Industrialized Nations

By the 18th and 19th centuries, the world was becoming divided into industrialized nations (e.g., Great Britain, then France, and then the United States) and non-industrialized nations (e.g., countries in the Middle East and Asia). Industrialized nations began to claim a growing portion of the world's global manufacturing output and economic wealth.

countries in the Middle East and Asia who had previously been manufacturing powerhouses of the world started to see their share of production for the world decline.

• ex. decline of textile production in India and Egypt: both had been long reknowned for the quality of their textile production but with the rise of mass-produced textiles in Brtain which were far cheaper , Indina and Egyptian market share declined due to cheaper mass-produced textiles from Britain

• ex. decline of shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia: both regions had actually experienced an increase in shipbuilding prior to the Industrial revoltuion, but, with Britain’s colonial takeover of the region, the shipbuilding sector became controlled by Britain who forced manufacturers to build ships for the Royal Navy

on a global scale, industrail countires made and sold lots of stuff, but non-industrial countries - not so much. that means that power began to shift to those industrialized countries.

Industrialized Nations Compared

Western Europe: France

• Industrialization began after 1815, following Napoleon's defeat

• France lacked abundant coal and iron deposits, leading to slower industrialization compared to Britain

• howver, before Napoleon was ousted he sort of laid the foundation for French industrailization due to his construction of the Quentin Canal (major waterway connecting Paris with the iron and coal fields of te North), soon the government sponsored the construction of railroads, and by the 1830s textile factories were built which created a significant cootton industry and revived their slumping silk industry. helped spur industrialization

• Compared to Britain, France industrialized much slower, but that slower adoption meant that France was spared some of the intense social upheavals Britain experienced because of its rapid transition.

The United States

• Industrialization began in the mid-19th century, following the Civil War

• The US possessed many of the same factors that enabled Britain's industrialization, including abundant natural resources (massive territory) and relatively political stability after civil war

• Rapid population growth (thru natural production and immigration) provided an expanding market for mass-produced goods

• The US economy grew exceedingly prosperous, leading to a higher standard of living for workers compared to their European counterparts

Russia

• Industrialization began in the late 19th century, driven by the autocratic government (tsar), who saw htat if Russia didn’t industrialize they were going to be left behind

• The adoption of steam engine and railroad technologies helped spur industrialization

• The significant achievemnet was the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad which stretched from Moscos toPacific Ocean and increased trade with Eastern states like China and created an interdependent market throughout Russia

• Although Russia's industrialization project brought them somewhat on par with other industrial powers, the top-down approach yielded brutal conditions for workers. That led to many uprisings among the workers and would eventually lead to Russian Revolution of 1905

Therefore, unlike the United States in which industrialization was largely driven from below by workers seeking new opportunities, Russia's industrialization was a state-driven affair in response to Russia's lagging development compared to Western Europe.

Japan

• context: Many Asian states were declining in power as Western industrial states grew more powerful

  • meant that places like China who had for centuries been among the most powerful economic state in the world was getting knocked around and taken advantage of by Western powers, who forced them to submission through many unequal treaties (opium wars??)

  • Japan saw this and realized that they didn’t wannta become subservient to Western powers too and so gthey began to a kind a defensive industrializati0n during period of Meiji Resroration

• Defensive industrialization began during the Meiji Restoration period

• Japan borrowed heavily from Western technology and education to quickly become an industrial power in the East, so much so that in a couple of decades Japan would become the most powerful state in the region

• Japan's industrialization was driven by a desire to avoid becoming subservient to Western powers, which had forced unequal treaties on many Asian states

Technology of the Industrial Age (5.5)

The first Industrial Revolution started (~1750-~1830), mainly confined to Great Britain. The Second Industrial revolution (mid19th century-early 20th century) and spread beyond Britian to some placesin Europe, the US, Russia, Japan

one of the chief markets of thedifference between is not jsut the geographical spread of industrialization but also thefuel and engiens that charactereized each phase.

The first Industrial Revolution was characterized by the use of coal as the main fuel. Coal was ideal because it burned hotter than wood, which was important for the main engine of this period: the steam engine.

"The steam engine used the prodigious hotness coming from burning coal to boil water and then create steam, which turned a turbine."

The steam engine, developed and improved by British scientist James Watt (18th century), had a significant impact on industrialization. It allowed factories to be built anywhere, not just near rapidly moving water and streams.

The chief effect of the adoption of the steam engine is that factory machines no longer had to be powered by rapidly moving water in streams, which meant factories could be built anywhere, which became a chief reason for the rapid spread of the factory system.

Applications of the Steam Engine:

• Powered factory machines

• Powered locomotives, which ran along railroads and transported mass-produced goods to market quickly

• Powered steam ships, which increased the efficiency and speed of with which products could be sold. many ports around the world developed coaling? stations for ships to refuel, and with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the distance from Europe to Asia shortened significantly, which inturn led to the multiplication of steam sthips and the rapid expansion of trade

The Second Industrial Reevolution (Mid-19th to Early 20th Century) (1850-1950)?

The Second Industrial Revolution was marked by the harnessing of a new fuel: oil. Methods were developed to refine oil into products like gasoline. The internal combustion engine was developed to harness the energy of gasoline, which was smaller and more efficient than the steam engine, and would eventually power a new development in transportation (automobile).

Both of these sources of fuel dramatically increased the amount of energy available to humans during this period even if it came with significant environmental costs like air pollution.

Other New Technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution

1.Steel (Widespread development)

• main building material for industrialization compared to iron in the first Industrial Revolution

• The Bessemer Process combined iron with carbon and blasted hot air into it - the steel that emerged was stronger and more versatile than iron alone

• plus, steel became more cheaper to produce

• Steel became the preferred building material for constructing bridges, railroads, and ships

2.Chemical Engineering

• Chemical engineers developed of synthetic dyes for textiles, which were cheaper than organic dyes used in the first Industrial Revolution

• Vulcanization was a process developed to make rubber harder and more durable. was good because of its widespread use in factories to make belts for machines and later it would be used to make tires for automobiles

3. Electricity

• had arguable the most significant impact of all the new technologies on industrialized nations

• Harnessed by Thomas Edison to power light bulbs, which let factories and homes

• Electric streetcars and subways were devloped to provide mass transit in major cities that were becoming large and complex thanks to continued industrialization.

• Telegraph, developed by Samuel Morse, (1840s) able to send communication across wires to distant places with the use of short and long electrical signals which became known as Morse code

  • eventually, in the 1870s, a telegarph wire was laid across the entire Atlantic Ocean, connectingBritian with the United States which further developed these two industrial powers’ eocnomies

Effects of New Technologies

1.Develoment of Interior Regions

• for much of human history, the most developed cities and states were located in coastal areas because thats where most of the trade and interaction happened. but withthe incredible expansion of railroads (including several transcontinental railroads in places like the U.S. and Russia) new settlements were developed in previously hard-to-reach areas

• Telegraph enabled instant communication across great distances, which enabled manufacturers to gain almost real-timeintelligenece on market conditionsin distant places. all of that meant more things made, more things sol and they got rich. facilitating trade and economic growth in these regions

2. Increase in Trade and Migration

• Global trade multiplied by a factor of 10 between 1850 and 1913

• as a result, states across the world wre becoming more closely interlinked into a global economy

• Transportation technologies, such as railroads and steamships, facilitated a massive spike in migration

• By the mid-19th century, over half of Europe's population had migrated from rural areas to urban manufacturing centers in search for jobs, and beacuse of various factors like famine and political instability in the late 19th century, nearly 20% of Europe's population migrated to the Americas, Australia, and South Africa by the late 19th century

Government Sponsored Industrialization (5.6)

Context

Remember that some states industrialized from the bottom up, while others industrialized from the top down. 5.6 is focused on the latter, where governments played a significant role in promoting industrialization.

top-down industrialization

Top-down industrialization refers to a process where the government takes a proactive role in promoting industrialization, often through state-sponsored initiatives and investments.

Egyptian (Ottoman) Industrailization

context: for states that adopted industrialization, mainly in Western Europe and the United States, the transformation of their economies and their share of the global balnace of power was fundamentally shifted in their favor.

In the early 19th century, Egypt, technically part of the Ottoman Empire, operated largely independently thanks to powerful military government under the leadership of Muhammad Ali. at this time, the Ottoman Empire was struggling and decling due to internal corruption and conflicts and therefore had little energy or wealth to invest in industrialization. (would later change iwth Tanzimat reforms). Egypt took steps towards industrialization on its own, which would also further erode their dependence on Ottoman sultans, including:

Tanzimat Reforms:

• 1. Industrial Projects - Establishing textile and weapons factories

• 2. Agriculture - Directing peasants to grow crops like wheat and cotton which the government purchased and then sold for profit on world market

• 3. Tariffs - significantly raised tariffs which were taxes on imported goods in order to protect the growing development of the Egyptian made goods (Egyptian economy)

However, this project was not as successful as those in Western Europe and the United States. Great Britian not trilled to witness the growing power and wealth of an industrialized Egypt mainly because crossing Egypt was the quickest way to access trade networks in Asia. so, when Egypt went to war with the Ottomans in 1839, Britain, which controlled trade networks in Asia, intervened and forced Egypt to remove tariffs and other trade barriers that protected the Egyptian idustry, resulting in mass produced British goods flooded into Egypt and their infant industries could not compete, thus stunting the industrial project.

Japan Industrializes

Japan's state-sponsored industrialization was more successful. Context: Japan during the Tokugawa Shogunate had almost completely isolated itself from Western influence in trade, leaving only a single port open to Dutch traders.

Factors in Japan that made them interested in industrialization:

1. Western Powers - witnessing Western powers dominate other Asian states like the once great China (basically overwhelmed China with their industrialized military might and forced them into a series of unequal treaties that made China subservient to Western economic interests), Japan saw that and went nuh uh

2. Matthew Perry - U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry came to Japan with a fleet of steam powered ships stacked with guns, sent a letter to the Shogun demanding that Japan open trade realtions with teh United States and with intimidation tactics went a white flag of surrender as a gift with that note

Ultimately, Japan decided to initiate an aggressive state sponsored program of industrialization as a defensive measure against western domination. This was facilitated by a Japanese Civil War in 1868, which led to the overthrow of the shogunate and the reestablishment of an emperor by a group of young samurai who became fearful of the effects of Western indrusion and continued Japanese isolationsim

Result was a period known as the Meiji Restoration, which Japan sought to esxcape foreign domination by adopting much of the industrial practices that had made the west powerful

initially Implementing Western practices wholesale, then later borrowing more selectively

Japan's industrialization efforts included:

• 1. Culture - Japan sent emissaries to major industrial powers to learn about their technology, culture, education systems, and political arrangements and implemented it in their own state

• later on would borrow more selectively

• 2. Government - Establishing a constitution that provided for an elected parliament (borrowed from Germany)

• 3. Infrastructure - The state funded building of railroads, the establishment of a national banking system, and development of industrial factories for textiles and munitions

The result of the Meiji Restoration and Japan's subsequent industrialization projects led to Japan becoming a major industrial power in Asia, able to deal with Europeans and Americans on equal terms (not the case anywhere else in the region).

The Economics of the Indusstrial Revolution (5.7)

First Big Econmic Change during this period: The slow decline of Mercantilism:

Mercantilism, a state-driven economic system (played a massive rolein European exploration and imperialism) was increasingly abandoned in favor of a new economic ssytem that better fit the realities of industrialization- free market economics, a market-driven system.

Significant influence on this transition:

Adam Smith's publication of The Wealth of Nations (1776) significantly influenced this transition. He argued that mercantilism was coercive and benefited only a few members of society, namely the elite.

Smith proposed laissez-faire policies ("Get the filthy government out of the economy and let people make their own economic decisions.") which would allow suppliers and consumers to react to each other based on the laws of supply and demand, a process he called The Invisible Hand. He believed this would lead to more evenly distributed wealth and unlimited prosperity.

The Transition to Free Market Capitalism

This transition didn't happen overnight, but after 1815, several Western governments abandoned some of their state regulations on trade, resulting in increased trade and greater wealth. (proved Smith right)

Critics of Free Market Capitalism

this capitalist form of economics created a working class that in many cases were exeedingly poor and who labored under great duress

Free Market Critics:

1. Jeremy Bentham - argued the cure for the suffering of the working class and society was not free market economics but government legislation

2. Friedrich List - rejected global free market principles as a trick used by Britain to bring other economies under its domination. His work led to the development of the Zollverein, a customs union that bound many German states together into an ecnomic unit that redued trade barriers between German states but put tariffs on imported goods, especialy from Britain in order to protec the beginnings of their own industrial projects

trans-National Corporations

As free market economics became more widespread, transnational corporations emerged. These are companies established and controlled in one country but also established large operations in many other countries.

1. Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation - opened in 1865 in British controlled Hong Kong to organize and control British imperial ventures. soon another branch was opened in shanghai, later in japan all of which generated enormosuse wealthfor British bankers

2. Unilever Corporation - a joint company established by the British and the Dutch that manufactured househodl goods, most known for soap. opened factroesi in seeral coutnries while sourcing its raw materials from colonial holdings, expeciallyin West Africa and the Belgium Kongo(Congo?)

Funding these corporations was complicated and relied on newly developed practices in banking and finance:

• 1. Stock markets: Companies raised funds by selling stocks, which were small portions of ownership in the corporation. people could buy these stocks onvarious international stock markets like theNew York Stock Exchange in the U.S. and when the company profited, so too did thestockholders.

• 2. Limited liability corporations: A way of organizing a business that protected the financial investment of its owners, allowing them to take risks while enjoying financial protection (could only lose the amount of money they invested)

Effects of Industrial Capitalism

Despite experiencing three major crises in the 19th century, on the whole, all western industrialized nations were significantly richer in 1900 than in 1800. This led to:

• A rising standard of living

• Greater access to consumer goods

• rapid enrichment of industrial societies created a new and growing middle class which was welathy enough to purchase mass-produced consumer goods

• with the further development of manufacturing technology, production of those goods became more effieicnet and therefore cheaper, so more and more people had access to everyday goods that improved thier lives

• the continued developmetn of mecahnized farming led to Abundant harvests that both increased the variet and abundance of fodod available, thus leading to longer lifespans for many people

Reactions to the Industrial Revolution (5.8)

Reactions from the Working Class

• Calls for Political Reform:

  • big reason for this was that many Western nations had been recognizing the right to vote for more and more people in their population . but from the perspective of longstanding political partieis who had previously only been concerned with appealing to the interests of the upper classes who had been the only ones eligble to vote

  • With more of the working class eligible to vote, there was a rise in mass based political parties that aimed to represent the interests of the workers.

  • ex. conservatives and liberals in Britain and France incorporated social reforms into their platrosm because people who wanted reforms were voting

• Calls for Social Reform:

  • life for the industrial working class was hard

  • Working-class people organized themselves into social societies that provided insurance for sickness and social events.

• Calls for Educational Reform:

  • between 1870 and 1914, the majority of European governments passed compulsory education laws to get boys and girls into school

  • in the midst of the second Industrial revolution, high paying jobs became more technical and specialized, and compulsory education prepared children for these kinds of jobs

• Calls for Urban Reforms:

  • due to the intense crowding of industrial cities whose infrastructure was not able to keep up with the growth, urban areas were dangerous and stinky

  • without much proper sanitation infrastructure

  • various Governments passed laws and invested in sanitation infrastructure, such as sewers, to improve urban conditions.

Rise of Labor Unions:

A Labor Union is a collective of workers who join together to protect their own interests.

• prior to these reforms, labor unions were illegal in many places and so all the power for change was in the hands of wealthy capitalists and factory owners who werent very flexible

• before this, no one worker could affect change int eh system , but labor unions were collectives of hundreds or thousands of workers, gvae them a lot more power

• Labor unions gave workers a collective voice to negotiate and bargain with employers to improve their lives. used this to bargain for higher wages, limited working hours, and iproved working conditions

• By the end of the 19th century, British labor unions had nearly 2 million workers, while German and American unions had about 1 million each.

• some of these unions turned into proper political parties that sought to enact reforms on behalf of the working classes in the highest level of govermnet

  • ex. German Social Democratic Party - formed out of the general German workers Association and advocated for Marxist reformin germany - specfically aimed to transform the capitalist system of private ownership of the means of production to social ownership of the means of production

Ideological reactions: Marxism

• Karl Marx: A German philosopher (lived in Great Britain for a long time), witnessed firsthand the suffering and injustices the working class endured on account of a society awash in capitalism. believed that capitalism was an unstable system that created a sharp class division in industrial societies. believed the inevitable result would be a violent revolution of the lower lassagainst the uper calsses - rseult would be calssless society

• The Communist Manifesto: Published in 1848, Marx and Friedrich Engels' book. called their approach Scientific Socialism. marx’s argument was essentially historical: he argued that History obeys laws just as the physical world obeys the laws of physics. tehrefore, history moves through patterns or stages with its major energy arising out of class strguggle until one day it would reach its ultimate goal

• basically arguing is that the intense societal changes brought on by the industrial rev had violently exacerbated the division between the two groups of marxist classification; the bourgeoisie (those who owned the means of production) and the proletariat (exploited by the bourgeoisie) . thus, once the proletariat became conscious of that arrangement, they would rise up in a revolution and overthrow the bourgeoisie and that would mark the end of class struggle - no more classes and everyone would just exist

China attempts industrialization (Qing China)

• in late 18th century, China continuually snubbed British traders - result was a trade deficit that Britain sought to remedy - started to import illegal opium which was a highly addictive drug from British controlled India, had serious negative consequences on the Chinese pop, Qing authorities cracked down on the illegal trade led to Opium wars.

• Opium Wars: China's defeat by British industrial powers might led to unequal treaties and the forced opening of trading ports.so by the end of the century more industrailized nations took advantagee of China's weakness and carved it up into various spheres of indluence in which they had exclusive trading rights.

• so, through the 1860s and 70s chinese authorities responded to this invasion of Wstern powers with the self-strengthening movement.

• Self-Strengthening Movement: A series of reforms aimed at industrialization while also revitalizing traditional culture. some steps were made in modernization, the full benefits of industrialization were hindered by Chinese conservatives who resisted changes that threatened the power of the landowning class.

• Sino-Japanese War: China's defeat by Japan in 1894-1895 led to the failure of the self-strengthening movement.

Ottoman Industrialization

• by the middle of the 19th century, Ottoman empire known as the “sick man of Europe.” due to its continued territory loss to industrial countries and its inability to raise sufficient tax revenues. just like china, ottomasn had become unwilling subservient to powerful industrial nations because they had not yet industrialized

• therefore, just like China, Ottoman authorities decided that a kind of defensive industrialization was necesary —> tanzimat reforms that was far more aggressive and transfomrative than China’s

• Defensive Industrialization: The Ottomans 1. built textile factories, 2. implemented western-style law codes and courts, and 3. implemented expansive education systems for children (all of which were more secular in nature and divorced from the historic Islamic character of the empire) to modernize and resist industrial powers.

• Tanzimat Reforms: A series of reforms that led to the emergence of a new group seeking political change, known as the Young Ottomans. they desired a european style parliament and a constitutional governemnt that would limit the power of absolutist sultans

• Constitutional Government: The Sultan conceded to a constitution and parliament in 1876, but later rejected any curtailment of his power when a potential war with Russia brewed.

• still empire later fell apart at beginning of 20th century

Society and the Industrial Revolution - Changes (5.9)

The Industrial Revolution caused significant changes in social hierarchies and standards of living.

New Social Classes

Three new social classes emerged during this period:

1. Industrial Working Class

• Comprised mainly of factory workers and miners

• Made up of rural people who moved to industrial urban areas in search of work due to increased mechanization of farming that left them jobless

• Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most workers possessed some kind of skill that their work required, now all these folks in the working class spent their days in factories performing unskilled labor.

• Most workers in this class were unskilled and performed repetitive tasks in factories

• viewed as interchangeable by factory managers

• however, working class did benefit in some ways from the rise of industry

  • their wages were higher than in many of the rural places they came from

• steep costs: danger of factory work and mining, crowded living conditions in shoddy tenements, the spread of disease, and the mind-numbing repetivie work fell on them

2. Middle Class

• Included wealthy factory owners and managers, as well as white-collar workers like lawyers, doctors, and teachers - called that because they work white collars and didnt get filthy like the working class

• Benefited the most from industrialization

• Had enough money to live comfortably and afford manufactured products that improved their quality of life

• and in some upper middle class had enough money to buy their way into aristocracy

• in general, the middle class understood themselves as having risen from the ranks of the working class strictly by their own ingenuity and effort, and that anyone who did not rise to the middle class was lazy and lethargic.

3. Industrialists (Captains of Industry)

• At the top of the social hierarchy

• Gained incredible wealth by owning large industrial corporations

• Became more powerful than the traditional landed aristocracy

Effect on Women

The effects of industrialization on women differed depending on their social class:

1. Working Class Women

• Worked in wage-earning jobs in factories, just like men since their husbands’ wages were not sufficeint to sustain a family if they were married

  • related note: children in the beginning of the Industrial Revworked wage jobs as young as 5

• men, women and children in the industrial environemnt were often split up and worked in different factories or mines

• but, once the dangers of industrial work became clear, some government passed laws to remove children from the difficulties of industiral owrk and get them into school

2. Middle Class Women

• Did not work due to their husband's sufficient income

• Stayed at home and focused on domestic roles as homemakers

• Were increasingly defined by their domestic roles, whose main task was creating a safe haven for their working men and a nurturing environment for their children

Challenges of Industrilization

• Rapid industrialization led to cities growing too quickly for their infrastructure to keep up

1. Pollution

• Coal smoke from factories and steam ships covered towns in soot and often resulted in a toxic fog that lingered over cities causing health problems for those who lived there

• both industrial and human waste was often dumped into nearby rivers which polluted the drinking waters. ex water in London’s river Tim? had gotten so low to drought and fecal deposit produced a horrible stink that hung over the city for a while

2. Housing Shortages

• More people flooded into cities than there were places for them to live

• Hastily constructed tenements were built, leading to overcrowding, poor ventilation, and sanitation issues, creating conditions for the rapid spread of diseases

3. Increased Crime

• Concentration of poor and working-class people in urban areas led to a significant rise in theft and violent crime, often associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption

Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization

Ideas that Justified Imperialism (6.1)

Context

In the previous period, several Western European states focused on building maritime empires, dominating the Indian Ocean trade, and colonizing the Americas. Embarked on a new wave of imperialism.

• The Industrial Revolution - New need for more resources (raw materials)

  • Causes: more technology to manufacturer things, so resources needed

  • More population forced people to manufacturer more and make better technology 

• Imperialism: competition among industrializing states increased the desire for colonies and expansion into new regions

  • British over India

  • European colonization of Africa

  • Economic imperialism in parts of Latin America and Asia

Four Major Ideologies of Imperialism that arose in part of the Industrial Rev (+ God, God, Glory motivated first wave of imperialisma nd did hae a role in the second wave)

1. Ideology #1: Nationalism

"A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, and social customs, often linked with a desire for self-rule within a territory."

Prior to this period, people understood themselves as subjects of a sovereign (king, queen, emperor, or sultan). With the spread of Enlightenment ideas and industrialization, people's loyalties became more linked to their own nation. Nationalism led to the unification of Italy and Germany and fueled imperial ventures.

Nationalistic impulses led imperial states into a bitter rialry to claim larger and larger empires across the world because thats how you achieve so called great power status (dark site of nationalism: belief they were better than otehrs)

2. Ideology #2: Scientific Racism

"The idea that humans can be hierarchically ranked into distinct biological classes based on race."

Racist arguments for colonization are not new - but whats new about scientific racism is the science part. prior to this period, Europeans still divided the world into “us” and “them” but the division was more religious in nature. (Christians vs non-christians),

Scientific racism classified humanity into races, with Europeans at the top. The pseudoscience of phrenology, which studied the shape and size of human skulls, was used to justify the superiority of the white race.

3. Ideology #3: Social Darwinism

if only the fittest survive and thrive in nature, then, applied to human society, that must mean that western industrial societies have proven taht their ways are best suited for the current global environment

justified imperial expansion as a natural process of strong nations eating weak nations.

4. Ideology #4: Civilizing Mission

"A sense of duty that Western societies (industrial) possessed to bring the glories of their civilizations to 'lower' civilizations."

1. sending Christian missionaries to colonized lands in order to convert people to Christianity,

2. reorganization of colonial governments into western models

3. impose Western-style education, goal was to suppress indigenous languages and cultures among colonized people.

How Imperial States Expanded (6.2)

Setting the Stage

Before comparing different methods of state expansion in the second wave of imperialism, two developments need to be considered:

• The geographical focus of imperialism has changed in this period. European Imperial expansion is now focused heavily on Africa and Asia, rather than the Americas.

  • 1450-1750: focused heavily on the Americas and various regions of Asia and Southeast asia. africa was also important, the but the main euorpean foucs on afirca during the first wave was to esatablish trading posts along the coast andn then use them to trade for antural resources and enslave laborers

  • but in 1750-1900, imperial expansion focused heavily on Africa , Asia, and Southeas Asia, and not so much in the Americas

• A change in which imperial states are trying to take over. (1450-1750) Spain and Portugal, who were the first movers in building maritime empires, are starting to lose control of their colonial holdings and are generally declining in importance. however, Great Britian, France, Dutch who were great first wave players ontinued to have major role. New players, such as Germany, Italy, Belgium, the United States, and Japan, are entering the stage.

Methods of Imperial Expansion

1. State Takeovers of Priate colonies (Private to State Control)

• Definition: When a state takes control of a colony previously controlled by an individual or business.

• Example: The Belgian Congo in Africa - private colony held by King Leopold II of Belgium

  • at that time, Belgium was a relatively new state, so Belgian Parliament decided it would be foolisht o go out claiming colonies while they wre still young

  • but Leopold made arrangements to gain control voer the Congo Free State for himself

    • called himself a humanitarian that wanted to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity and bring western education. however, just served as a cover for his brutal expoloitation of the olony for raw materials (most notably rubber) which resulted in loss of millions of lives

  • once discovered, public outrage ensued and the Belgian government took control of the Congo in 1908.

• another example: Dutch government taking over Indonesia from the Dutch East India Company

• ex. British government taking over India from the British East India Company

2. Diplomacy and Warfare

• colonization of Africa

• Definition: Diplomacy refers to the act of making political agreements by means of dialogue and negotiation, rather than warfare.

• Example: The Berlin Conference (1884-1885), because some European powers were already beginning to claim some parts of Africa, a fierce competition for Afircan territory ensued. became known as the Scramble for Africa .

• important: state competition fueled imperialism

• seeing that this would probably lead to warfare, Otto Von Bismarck of Germany called the major European imperial powers to the Bertlin Conference. where European powers carved up the African continent into colonial holdings without inviting African leaders

• that led to drawing borders in Africa that divided previously united ethnic groups and brought together rival ethnic groups

• some states used warfare to expand into Africa

  • ex. French in Algeria - in first part of 19th century (1800s), France was seriously in debt to Algeria who supplied France with much of its wheat

  • Algeria wanted to get paid so France sent a diplomat over to negotiate more time. Algerian ruler displeased, things got so tense that ruler hit French diplomat

  • france responded by 35,000 troops to invade algeria and claim the city and continued to take parts of North Africa

  • despite resistance throughout the 19th century from successive Muslim rulers in Algeria, the French ultimatelu prevailed and expanded thier power through Africa by warfare

3. Settler Colonies

• Definition: A colony in which an imperial power claims an already inhabited territory and sends its own people to live there, establishing an outpost of their own society.

• Example: The British established settler colonies in the South Pacific territories, such as Australia and New Zealand, thus leading to huge waves of British settlers coming in to populate the region, introducing diseases and leading to the displacement and killing of indigenous populations. like the aborigines in Australia and the Maori in New Zealand

4. Conquering Neighboring territories

• Definition: When an imperial power conquers neighboring territories, often to expand their empire and gain resources.

• Examples:

  • The United States, with its desire for westward expansion. Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and wars with Mexico and Spain in the 19th century, created desire to expand westward into neighboring territories —> Manifest Destiny. displaced indigenous peoples .in order to complete the conquest, the U.S. government forcibly moved indigenous peoples onto reservations

    • also practiced politics of forcible assimilation with some groups, especially their children by forcing them into Ameircan style boarding schools where they would be stripped of thier culture

  • Russia,

    • second half of 19th century - after Russia’s humiliating loss in the Crimean war, a mlitant political doctrine known as panslavism spread among the Russian elite.

    • main idea was to unite all Slavic peoples under Russian authority, including all who currently lived under Ottoman and Austrian rule

    • that ideology + desire to achieve great power on world stage led to numoerous capaigns to claim neighboring territory

      • ex. 1860, establised trading pots all the way out in the Pacific coast

  • Japan,

    • stood out as one major non-western power joining the imperialism

    • due to its rapid industrialization during Meiji Restoration, laid thousands of miles of railroads and quicklymodernized thier military. expanded its sphere of influence over Korea, Manchuria, and part of China.
      

How Indigenous People Resisted Imperial Expansion (6.3)

There were two primary reasons for anti-colonial resistance during this period:

• 1. Increasing Questions about Political Authority

  • civilizing mission led to the introduction of Western-style education in colonized territories

  • A significant influence of western education was Enlightenment thought, espeically ideas like Popular Sovereighty and the Social Contract, caused the educated to question the legitimacy of Imperial power. (still, didnt nescesaryily need western education to question this)

• 2. Growing Sense of Nationalism

  • Nationalism served as a motivation for industrial states to take over the world, but it also induced a sense of nationalism in the conquered peoples.

  • when imperial powers imposed their will and their language and their culture on various colonized peoples, that had a way of inducing a sense of nationalism in the conquered peoples

  • This led many to resist colonization and fight for a state of their own.

Examples of Anti-Colonial Resistance 💪

Here are three examples of how various peoples resisted Imperial intrusion:

Direct Resistance: The Yaa Asantewaa War in West Africa

• In the first half of the 19th century, Great Britain was greedy to get its hands on more territory in West Africa. made 4 attempts to conquer the Asante kingdom to access the gold in that terriroty

• War of the Golden Stool -

• The Asante people possessed a Golden Stool, which represented their cultural unity and authority.

• The British thought that if they could find the stool and have someone sit on it, the Asante would be convinced of their authority.

• Yaa Asantewaa, the Queen Mother of the Asante, led her people in rebellion against the British, using armed violence and shaming the men to fight.

• still, superior weaponry of industrial british proved mightier

The Creation of the Cherokee Nation 🏠

Creation of new states: ex. creation of Cherokee Nation at the edge of the United States territory

• The United States itself rebelled against British Imperial power and won independence, doubling its territory.

• As the US gained more territory, its citizens pushed west, clashing with indigenous peoples who had claims on that land.

• The Cherokee people responded to this situation by assimilating to American culture, but even that wasn't enough to keep Congress from passing the Indian Removal Act of 1835. basially were forcily removed and forced into Oklahoma territory

• The Cherokee Nation established a new state on the periphery of the United States, including a semi-autonomous government and judicial system.

Religious Rebellions: ex. Xhosa Cattle Killing MOvement in southern Africa

• british claimed more and more of Xhosa territory

• many of the Xhosa cattle were dying off on account of diseases that may have come from Europeans

• aroundthe middle of the century, a religious movement started gaining steam among the Kosa people, driven by a prophecy. it said that If the Kosa people slaughtered their cattle, then new healthy cattle would rise up to replace them. Additionally, after the slaughter, the ancestral debt of the Kosa would rise up and drive the European intruders from their land."

• so they killed hundreds of thousands of their own cattle

• Unfortunately, the only outcome was the starvation of the Kosa people, making it easier for the British to claim their territory.

Global Economic Changes (6.4)

Transformation of Colonial Economies

One of the main motivations for imperialism was to gain access to more raw materials needed for industrialization. As Imperial Powers gained more colonies, they transformed these colonial economies into export economies, primarily focused on exporting raw materials or goods for distant markets.

Before Imperialism

• Most people in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Americas were subsistence farmers, growing a variety of foods for their families to survive.

After Imperialism

• Imperial Powers reorganized colonial economies around the export of one or two cash crops or natural resources.

• Examples:

  • Growing cotton for textile factories

  • Extracting copper, diamonds, or other raw materials

Causes of Economic Development

First Cause: Need for Raw Materials

• Imperial Powers needed raw materials for industrial factories.

• Industrial production was the means by which states gained and maintained power during this period.

• Examples:

  • Egypt and India were highly dependent on exporting cotton to Britain.

  • Palm oil plantations were established in West Africa to manufacture goods like soap and lubricants for factory machines.

Second Cause: Need to Supply Food to Growing Urban Centers

• Urbanization led to an increase in population, requiring more food to be imported from elsewhere.

• Some colonial economies were reorganized to meet this need by shifting to cash crop cultivation of popular foods like:

  • Sugar

  • Coffee

• Industrial ranching operations were set up in Argentina and Brazil to satisfy the growing demand for meat among the middle class and industrial nations.

Effects of Global Economic Developments

Profits from Exports

• Profits from exports were used to purchase finished manufactured goods.

• "Colonies provided a closed market for manufactured goods."

Growing Economic Dependence

• The reorganization of colonial economies served only the interest of the colonizing overlords, not the indigenous peoples.

• "The colonial peoples became more dependent upon them for their own wellbeing."

"The big development here is that Imperial Powers fundamentally transformed Colonial economies to serve their own interest, namely the extraction of Natural Resources or the production of industrial crops."