Memory and Learning: Key Concepts and Processes in Psychology

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects' appearance and location in space.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

sematic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad moods

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.