HDFS 229 - Exam 1

Development stability

The degree to which people remain the same over time relative to other people

Continuous development

Perspective that says we gradually improve and change over time

Discontinuous development

Perspective that says we have stepwise changes, big shifts, and different stages

Biopsychosocial approach

Approach that says development is a combination of biological, psychological, and social processes

• holistic approach

Lifespan perspective

Theory that says development is a lifelong, multi-directional process, and that we our development is based on our plasticity, is contextual, and is multi-dimensional

Plasticity

The degree to which characteristics can or cannot change throughout the lifespan

Contextual

Development is _____ (must be studied in various contexts)

Multidimensionality

Many intra-individual (within a person) factors interact to affect development

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Systems Model

Micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono system

Microsystem

People and contexts that interact directly with the adolescent

• Ex: family, friends, siblings, teachers

Mesosystem

Interactions and relationships between microsystems

• Ex: parent/teacher conferences

Exosystem

A setting that affects the adolescent indirectly through the microsystem

• Ex: school system

Macrosystem

Overarching cultural or social context that influences the structure and relationships among various systems

• Ex: culture, customs, value systems, gender norms

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Knowledge and values are learned through interactions with caregivers - cognitive development is a socially-mediated process

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

People face particular psychological tasks called a “crisis” and must solve them by interacting with the social environment

• Ex: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame & doubt

Behaviorism

Behavioral differences are learned as a result of conditioning, reinforcements, and punishments

Social learning

Behaviors are learned through observing others and modeling adults/peers

Naturalistic observation

Out in the field, home (natural environment) - involves no manipulation

Structured observation

Occurs in a laboratory or controlled environment - researcher controls environment and evokes behavior

Observation problems

Observer influence, observer bias, observation is expensive and time-consuming

Clinical interview

Flexible, not “standardized”

• Can give you really detailed responses

Structured interview

Each client receives the same questions in the same order, “standardized”

• More controlled

• Let’s you compare people

Self-report problems

• Different interpretations of questions

• Lack of honesty

• Memory recall errors

• Uncertainty about the meaning of the questions/answers

Psycho-physiological measures

• Functional MRI (fMRI): detects blood flow and oxygen in the brain

• EEG (electroencephalogram): a measure of brain activity

• Heart rate: intensity can suggest a stress response

• Skin conductance

• Cortisol test: measures the level of stress hormone in blood, saliva, or urine

Genotype

Makeup of specific genes within the DNA

Phenotype

Expression of genes in physical or psychological traits

• the traits we actually see

Behavioral Genetics

How genes and environments interact to elicit differences in behavior

Shared environment

Those aspects of the environment that two people have in common (same family, household, etc.)

Non-shared environment

Aspects of a nurturing environment that are unique to individuals (friends, teachers, birth order, etc.)

Twin studies

Identical twins have essentially identical genomes, and twins (identical and fraternal) raised together have more of a shared environment than siblings. Comparing similarities between identical and fraternal twins allows us to estimate genetic influence.

Adoption studies

Adopted children share the environment with their adoptive parents, but none of their genes, so studying how similar they are to their biological parent (genes) or the adoptive parent (environment) can indicate genetic/environmental influence on each trait.

Heritability

Calculated by comparing differences in genotype and phenotypes between pairs of individuals

Polygenic

Most traits are influenced by multiple genes

Evocative genotype-environment correlations

Inherited traits influence the environment’s response

• Ex: smiling children receive more social stimulation than quiet, passive children

Passive genotype-environment correlations

Biological parents provide a rearing environment for the child

• Ex: parents who like to read will provide their children with books, resulting in a skilled reader due to predisposition and a book-filled environment

Niche-picking genotype-environment correlations

Children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating

• ex: becoming a musician if you choose to pick up an instrument

Developmental trajectory

Our unique path or pattern of change we follow through life, influenced by genes and environment

Oogenesis

The process of an oocyte (female germ cell) maturing into an ovum through meiosis

Ovulation

The release of the ovum into the fallopian tube from the ovary

Spermatogenesis

Male germ cell (sperm) is created

Zygote (or Germinal) phase

Moment of conception

• Lasts until 2 weeks of pregnancy

Blastocyst

Includes trophoblast (outer layer of stem cells that creates the placenta and makes implantation possible) and embryoblast (inner mass that develops into the amniotic sac and the embryo)

Ectopic pregnancy

Implantation in the fallopian tube, but doesn’t attach to the uterine wall

Embryonic phase

From weeks 2 through 8 of pregnancy

• Body structures/organs begin to form

• Basic organs such as the brain and the heart

  • Highest sensitivity to developmental errors and miscarriage

Fetal phase

From 8 weeks until birth

Age of viability

Occurs at 22-24 weeks of gestation - the possibility that the fetus can exist outside of the mother’s womb

Amniotic sac

A protective bag around the growing embryo and fetus

• Filled with amniotic fluid, which guards against injury and infection

• Grows in size with the baby

• Breaking open is a sign of labor

Placenta and umbilical cord

Filter and nourish the fetus

• Provide oxygen through maternal vessels connecting to umbilical vessels

  • Removes waste and filters teratogens

Vernix Caseosa

A protective barrier for the skin in the third trimester

• Guards against infection and water loss

• Nourishes skin and maintains body temperature

Typical prenatal care

• Date scan between 11 and 14 weeks

• Genetic testing

• 18-22 weeks scan - identification of placenta and fetal structures

• Monthly monitoring of fetal heartbeat and size

• Maternal recommendations for exercise, nutrition, and risks

Physical symptoms of pregnancy

• Early spotting

• Back pain

• Nausea/vomiting/morning sickness

• Constipation

• Swollen ankles/feet

• Skin changes

IVF (in-vitro fertilization)

Advances in medical technology allow for assisted fertilization and implantation; success rates vary by maternal factors and it is not always successful

Miscarriage

Early termination of pregnancy due to physical change, genetic mutation, or injury

Factors that increase miscarriage likeliness

Maternal age, high blood pressure, diabetes, or thyroid issues

Gestational diabetes

Diabetes due to pregnancy

Anemia

Lack of red blood cells - typically due to a lack of iron

Placenta previa

Placenta covers the cervical opening - often leads to needing C-section

Preeclampsia

Dangerously high blood pressure

Placental abruption

Separation of the placenta from the uterine wall during pregnancy (often due to injury/strain)

Teratogens

Any environmental agent that can cause damage during the prenatal period

• Drugs, chemicals, diseases (viral or bacterial)

Effects of teratogens depends on:

• Dosage - the amount of exposure

• Timing - when it happens during development

• Genetic susceptibility - whether genes make us vulnerable

Alcohol as a teratogen

Leads to physical and cognitive defects - restricts blood and oxygen flow to the placenta and the fetus

• Heart, kidney, liver defects

• Skeletal and facial deformities

• Significant delays in speech and cognitive abilities

Environmental teratogens

Natural and manufactured chemicals that may affect human health

• Household chemicals

• Pollution (water and air)

• Heavy metals (mercury and lead)

• Plastics and flame-retardant chemicals

Maternal nutrition

Mother is responsible for giving the fetus key nutrients for development, such as folic acid, iron, and calcium

Nutrient deficiencies

Children born to malnourished mothers are more likely to have malformations and other developmental problems

Maternal stress

High maternal stress can lead to emotional or cognitive problems, ADHD, and language delay in the child

Maternal exercise

Walking and limited strenuous exercise is recommended

Uterine walk

During the final weeks of pregnancy, the fetus will move around the uterus, hopefully ending in a head-down position for safe delivery

Braxton-Hicks contractions

“False labor” - occur around second or third trimester; the body is preparing for true labor, but they do not indicate that labor has begun

Stage 1 of birth

Uterine contractions come at regular intervals, 5-20 minutes apart (may require intervention to begin)

• This stage lasts the longest - an average of 12 to 14 hours

Stage 2 of birth

Active process of pushing toward the baby’s birth - baby’s head starts to move through the cervix

• Lasts about 45 minutes to a couple of hours

Stage 3 of birth

Afterbirth

• The placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled

Midwives

Trained health practitioners who help women during their labor, delivery, and afterbirth

Doulas

Caregivers who provide continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth

• Also act as an advocate for the mother

Analgesics

Medication used to relieve pain (tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics)

Anesthesia

Medication used in late first-stage labor and during expulsion of the baby

Epidural block

Regional anesthesia that numbs the woman’s body from the waits down

Oxycotin

A hormone that promotes uterine contractions

Labor induction

Triggering the uterus to contract (and sometimes getting the cervix to soften)

Prostaglandins

Hormones that dilate the cervix

Natural childbirth

Vaginal delivery with little or no medical intervention, specifically avoiding pain medication like epidurals, and minimizing procedures such as cesarean sections or forceps

• Breathing exercises, meditation, and massage to manage pain

Cesarean delivery

The baby is removed from the mother’s uterus through an incision made in her abdomen

When is cesarean delivery required?

If the baby is lying crosswise in the uterus, the baby’s head is too large, there are developmental complications, or the mother is bleeding vaginally

Breech position

The baby’s buttocks would be the first part to emerge, which can cause respiratory problems and requires a C-section

APGAR score

Taken at 1 and 5 minutes after birth, measures the baby’s Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration

• Score of 7-10 is considered healthy

Low birth weight

Baby weighs less than 5.5 pounds at birth

Very low birth weight

Baby weighs less than 3.5 pounds at birth

Extremely low birth weight

Baby weighs less than 2 pounds at birth

Preterm

Birth 3 weeks or more before the full-term date

What are some complications with preterm babies?

• Higher risk of infection, brain damage, and learning disabilities

• Breathing complications

Treatment for preterm babies

Kangaroo care (constant skin-to-skin contact) and massage care

Post-partum depression

Serious major depressive episode during the post-partum period (10% of mothers experience this)

Baby blues

Common (about 70% of mothers) - sadness, anxiety, tearfulness symptoms appear 2 to 3 days after delivery and last 1 to 2 weeks

Involuation

The process by which the uterus returns to its prepregnancy size five or six weeks after birth

Bonding

Building a close connection between parents and the newborn soon after birth

Heritability coefficient

Ranges from 0 to 1, with 0 being no genetic influence and 1 being perfect genetic influence

Dealing with genetic abnormalities

Genes are not destiny (they alone do not determine whether someone will develop a disorder), but genes that are missing, mutated, or nonfunctional can be associated with disorders.