the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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Bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
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Top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes (as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations)
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Selective Attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
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Inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
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Change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
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Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another
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Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
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Absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
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Signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
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Subliminal
below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
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Difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time - just noticeable difference (jnd)
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Weber’s Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
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Sensory Adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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Perceptual set
a mental disposition to perceive one thing and not another
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Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input
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Parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
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Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next
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Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude
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Hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light
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Cornea
outer covering of the eye
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Pupil
adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
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Iris
ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
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Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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Accommodation
process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects in the retina
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Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; Necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond
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Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina; Function in daylight/well-lit conditions; Detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
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Optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
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Blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there
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Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster
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Feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
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Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
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Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors (red, green, blue) which, when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color
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Opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision (some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green)
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Gestalt
an organized whole
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Figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
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Grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups; Proximity, Continuity, and Closure
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Depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional (allows us to judge distance)
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Visual-cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
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Retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth, by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance (the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object)
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Binocular cues
depth cues (ex. retinal disparity) that depend on the use of two eyes
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Monocular cues (definition)
depth cues (ex. interposition, linear perspective) available to either eye alone
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Monocular cues (examples)
Relative height, Relative size, Interposition, Linear perspective, Relative motion, and Light and shadow
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Phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
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Perceptual Constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
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Color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
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Perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
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Audition
the sense or act of hearing
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Pitch
a tone’s experienced highness or lowness (depends on frequency)
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Amplitude of sound waves
determines their loudness
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Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (i.e. per second)
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Eardrum
tight membrane that vibrates when struck by sound waves
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Middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window
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Oval window
where the stirrup connects to the cochlea
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Cochlea
a coiled, body, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
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Inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
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Basilar membrane
Auditory nerve and Auditory cortex
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Auditory nerve
nerve which sends the auditory message to the brain via the thalamus
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Sensorineural hearing loss
loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves (aka nerve deafness)
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Conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
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Cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
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Place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (high pitched sounds)
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Frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (low pitched sounds); Volley principle
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Types of touch
Pressure, Warmth, Cold, and Pain
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Gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
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Nociceptors
a sensory receptor for painful stimuli
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types of taste
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and Umami (savory)
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sweet
energy source
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salty
sodium essential to physiological processes
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sour
potentially toxic acid
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bitter
potential poisons
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umami
proteins to grow and repair tissue
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Olfaction (smell)
Chemical sense, Odor molecules, Olfactory bulb, and Olfactory nerve
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Kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
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Vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance (semicircular canals)
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Sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
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Embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states of cognitive preferences and judgments