Developmental Theories: Psychoanalytic, Learning, Cognitive, and Ecological Perspectives

What is the main idea of Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory?

Development is influenced by internal drives and emotions on behavior.

What are the three parts of personality according to Freud?

Id, ego, and superego.

What motivates behavior in Freud's theory?

Libido, which is the motivating force behind most behavior.

What is the role of the ego in Freud's psychosexual theory?

To satisfy the needs of the id and keep the three components of personality in balance.

What does the superego represent in Freud's theory?

It acts as a moral judge and contains the rules of society.

What are the five psychosexual stages proposed by Freud?

Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.

What is the Oedipus complex?

A conflict between a son's affection for his mother and fear of his father.

What is the Electra complex?

A conflict where a daughter's bond with her father is against the potential loss of her mother's love.

What is Erik Erikson known for?

Developing a theory of psychosocial stages that emphasizes the interaction of internal drives and cultural demands.

How many stages are in Erikson's psychosocial theory?

Eight stages.

What is a crisis in Erikson's psychosocial theory?

A pair of opposing possibilities that must be resolved for healthy personality development.

What is the first stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Trust versus mistrust.

What is the significance of generativity in Erikson's theory?

It represents the concern for establishing and guiding the next generation.

What is the last stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Ego integrity versus despair.

What is a major strength of psychoanalytic theories?

They highlight the importance of a child's earliest relationships with caregivers.

What is a major weakness of psychoanalytic theories?

The fuzziness of many concepts makes them difficult to test.

What do behavior geneticists study?

They try to understand individual differences in development.

What is Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory?

It emphasizes the multiple systems that influence human development.

What is the role of defense mechanisms in Freud's theory?

They are ways of thinking about a situation that reduce anxiety.

What is repression in the context of Freud's defense mechanisms?

A defense mechanism that involves pushing distressing thoughts out of conscious awareness.

What did Freud believe about sexual feelings and personality development?

He believed they are important to personality development.

What is the significance of Erikson's emphasis on continued development?

It suggests that personality development continues throughout the lifespan.

What are the two opposing possibilities in Erikson's first stage?

Trust and mistrust.

What is the focus of the anal stage in Freud's theory?

It focuses on toilet training and the control of bodily functions.

What is the focus of the phallic stage in Freud's theory?

It involves the child's awareness of their own and others' bodies and the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

What is the latency stage in Freud's theory?

A period of relative calm in psychosexual development where sexual feelings are suppressed.

What is the genital stage in Freud's theory?

The final stage where sexual maturity is reached and relationships with others become important.

What theory did John Watson advocate regarding human development?

Watson believed that children could be trained to do anything through environmental manipulation.

What is behaviorism?

Behaviorism is a way of thinking common to all learning theories that explains how experience shapes development.

What is classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a learning process where organisms acquire new signals for existing behaviors, based on principles discovered by Ivan Pavlov.

What are the key components of classical conditioning?

Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

What experiment did John Watson conduct with 'Little Albert'?

Watson exposed 'Little Albert' to loud noises while playing with a white rat to condition him to fear the rat.

What is generalization in the context of Watson's experiment?

Generalization is when 'Little Albert' exhibited fear in response to other white, fuzzy objects after being conditioned.

What are the practical implications of classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning may be a source for developmental changes involving emotional responses and is important in infancy.

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a learning principle coined by B.F. Skinner, where behaviors are learned or stopped based on their consequences.

What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Reinforcement is anything that follows a behavior and causes it to be repeated.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

Punishment is anything that follows a behavior and causes it to stop.

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

What is Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory?

Bandura's theory posits that learning can occur through observational learning and does not always require reinforcement.

What is self-efficacy in Bandura's theory?

Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to succeed, influencing their overall sense of well-being and physical health.

What are the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?

1. Sensorimotor stage, 2. Preoperational stage, 3. Concrete operational stage, 4. Formal operational stage.

What is Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory?

Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that complex forms of thinking originate in social interactions and involve scaffolding.

What is the zone of proximal development?

The zone of proximal development is the range of tasks that a child can perform with guidance but not yet independently.

What does the information-processing theory compare the mind to?

The information-processing theory uses a computer model to explain how the mind manages information.

What are the three types of memory in the information-processing model?

Sensory memory, short-term memory (working memory), and long-term memory.

What is behavior genetics?

Behavior genetics is the study of the influence of heredity on individuality and how genetic makeup affects traits.

How do behavior geneticists study heredity and environment?

They study twins and conduct family studies to identify how genetic makeup influences the environment.

What is the role of nature and nurture in behavior genetics?

Nature and nurture have independent and interactive effects on individual differences.

What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Assimilation is the process of integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas.

What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Accommodation is the process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

What is equilibration in Piaget's theory?

Equilibration is the process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding.

What is the significance of Piaget's work in cognitive development?

Piaget's work has been replicated across cultures and cohorts, demonstrating its broad applicability.

What is the criticism of information-processing theory?

Critics claim it emphasizes explanations of simple cognitive tasks and may overlook complex processes.

How does Vygotsky's theory differ from Piaget's?

Vygotsky emphasizes social interactions and scaffolding, while Piaget focuses on individual cognitive development stages.

What do children inherit from their parents?

Genes and the environment in which they grow.

How can genetic heritage influence a child's environment?

Parents with high IQ scores may pass 'good IQ' genes and create a more stimulating environment.

What is the role of inherited qualities in children's behavior?

Each child's unique pattern of inherited qualities affects how they behave with others.

What do ethologists study?

Universal behaviors that support individual survival.

What do sociobiologists focus on?

Universal behaviors that support group survival.

What is imprinting in ethology?

Young of some species form relationships with mature members.

Who studied imprinting among animals?

Konrad Lorenz.

What does Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory emphasize?

The relationships between people and their environments.

What are the interconnected contexts in Bronfenbrenner's theory?

Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.

What is the microsystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory?

The immediate biological context of the individual.

What does the mesosystem include?

Family, school, and other immediate contexts.

What is the exosystem?

Government institutions and socioeconomic factors.

What does the macrosystem represent?

Cultural beliefs and values.

What are the three questions that theories about development answer?

Active or passive? Nature or nurture? Continuity or discontinuity?

What does the active side of development theories claim?

A person's actions on the environment are the most important determinants of development.

What is the nature vs. nurture debate?

The argument about whether nature or environment is more important in development.

What do continuity theories claim about development?

Development is stable and continuous without stages.

What do stage theories emphasize?

Change more than stability, with development occurring in leaps.

What is a key criterion for judging the usefulness of theories?

Testable predictions.

What is heuristic value in the context of theories?

The degree to which a theory stimulates thinking and research.

What makes a theory useful in solving real-world problems?

Its ability to provide practical solutions.

What is eclecticism in developmental theories?

The use of multiple theoretical perspectives to explain and study human development.

How do developmental theories differ in their assumptions?

Each theory is based on different assumptions, leading to different approaches in studying development.

What is the significance of Bronfenbrenner's concentric circles model?

It illustrates the interconnected contexts of development.

What is the role of inherited tendencies in interpreting experiences?

Inherited tendencies can affect how individuals interpret their experiences.

What is the criticism of ethological and sociobiological theories?

They may underestimate the impact of the environment and are difficult to test.

What is the scientific study of age-related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and personality called?

Human Development

What philosophical view suggests that humans are born as a 'blank slate'?

John Locke's perspective

Which philosopher is associated with the concept of 'original sin'?

Augustine of Hippo

What does Jean-Jacques Rousseau believe about human nature?

He believed in both innate goodness and original sin.

What significant shift occurred in the 19th century regarding the study of human development?

The scientific method began to be used to study human development.

What are the three kinds of age-related changes identified in human development?

Biological age, psychological age, and social age.

What is the nature-nurture debate?

It discusses the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.

What is the continuity-discontinuity debate?

It examines whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages.

What is the primary advantage of the experimental method over descriptive methods?

The ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

What are cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential designs used for?

They are research designs used to study human development over time.

Why is cross-cultural research important in the study of human development?

It helps to understand how cultural contexts influence development.

What ethical standards must developmental researchers follow?

Researchers must ensure informed consent, confidentiality, and minimize harm.

What was the focus of early scientific studies of human development?

They focused on understanding individual differences and moral dimensions of development.

What role did Charles Darwin play in the study of human development?

He contributed to the scientific method's application to human development through baby biographies.

What is the lifespan perspective in human development?

It seeks to explain human development across all ages, not just childhood.

How did early philosophers view the process of development?

They offered explanations based on spiritual authorities and philosophical orientations.

What is one goal that researchers of human development try to achieve?

To understand the patterns and processes of change throughout the lifespan.

What methods did early scientific studies use to gather data?

They used baby biographies, questionnaires, and interviews.

Who is considered a pioneer in the study of child development and used movie cameras for observation?

Arnold Gesell

What did Stanley Hall study in 1891?

The contents of children's minds on entering school.