itp chap 1

Psychology 

• A scientific study human behavior and mental processes

• Came from two greek words which are psyche (breathe, principle of life, soul) and logia (speech, word, reason)

• Scientific study - following a systematic method and based on data.

• It seeks to describe, explain, predict, and to the extent, control behavior and mental processes.

• Psyche - Soul & Soul = Mind

Overt

• Behaviors that can be observed and seen by the human eye, such as physical actions and verbal movements. 

Covert

• Behaviors that cannot be observed nor seen by the human eye are the things that are happening inside a person’s mind such as imagination, thinking, retrieving memories, processing information, emotions etc.

Psychometrics

• Is a scientific  discipline concerned with the construction of assessment tools, measurement instruments, and related activities.

• It convert data to numbers

• Psychometric Properties: reliability & validity. 

Psychological Construct

• Also called as hypothetical construct

• A tool used to facilitate understanding of human behavior

• topic/ideas that are meant to represent the two parts of human behavior such as covert and overt.

Construct

• It is a clear indicator and definition

• It exists in the human brain and are not directly observable

• Based on one or more established theories

Sensation 

• Process of the sensory organs transforming physical energy into neurological impulses the brain interprets as the five senses.

Human Mind/Brain

• Processes the information

• Processed through the help of five senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch

• Mind is whatever the brain does. Mind is the product of the brain. Brain can affect the mind, so does the mind. 

Perception

• Recognition and interpretation of sensory information. 

Biopsychosocial Model

• Biological, psychological, social model.

• It explains what influence the behavior

• Gives evidence that even mentally stable person can go through mental illnesses/disorders if the biopsychosocial balance is disturbed.

• Determines the cause of the behavior/mental problem of a person

Theories

• Allows us to derive explanations and perceptions

• Fact-based ideas that helps in describing the phenomenon of a behavior

• Hypothesis that are backed up by evidence.

• To describe/make future predictions about behaviors. 

Satisfactory Psychological Theory 

• Allows us to predict behavior

• If our observations cannot be explained by the given theory. It should be revised/replaced

• Example: theory of hunger - allows us to predict when a person will eat.

Eclectic

• Uses different theories to cater to a person's needs.

Qualitative Research

• Focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication.

• Focuses on why rather than what.

• Relies on direct human experiences

• Narrative

• Uses descriptive research as research design. 

Descriptive Research 

• Aims to accurately explain or describe a situation, phenomenon/population.

• Can answer what, where and how.

Quantitative Research

• Process of collecting and analyzing numerical data

Correlation Research

• Conducted to find the relationship between two variables.

• Pearson R evaluates the relationship

• Pearson R - it is the number between -1 and 1 that measures strength and direction between variables.

Pure Research

• Conducted without the need/concern for immediate applications.

Applied  Research

• Conducted to find solutions to particular problems/ 

Scientific Method

• An organized way of using experience and testing ideas to expand and refine knowledge.

• Research is guided by certain principles. 

• Systematic way of organizing. 

• Psychologists begin research by formulating research questions which are based on a person’s daily experiences.

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Hypothesis

• Is a statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research.

Correlation

• Association or relationship among variables.

Selection Factor

• Source of bias that may occur in research findings, when participants are allowed to choose for themselves. 

Sample

• Is a segment of population

Population

• A complete group of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn.

Random & Stratified Sampling

• A way to achieve a representative sample. 

Random Sampling

• Each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to  participate

Stratified  Sampling

• Selected so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample.

Volunteer Bias

• People who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not. 

Case Study

• Collects information about individuals.

• Biography obtained through interviews, tests and questionnaires.

• Used to investigate rare occurrences.

• Subject to inaccuracies due to gaps, factual errors in people’s memories. However, memories are not reliable for it can be constructed or manipulated.

Survey

• Conducted to learn about behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed in the natural setting or studied experimentally.

• Employs questionnaires and interviews or examine public records.

• Alfred Kinsey; published 2 best known _ of sexual behavior : sexual behavior in the human male (1948) and sexual behavior in the human female (1953)

• Some survey errors are caused by inaccurate, self reports of behavior.

Alfred Kinsey

• published 2 best known survey of sexual behavior : sexual behavior in the human male (1948) and sexual behavior in the human female (1953)

Naturalistic Observation 

• Observe people in their natural habitats

• Observers use unobtrusive measures to avoid interfering with the behavior they are observing

• Example: no direct interaction with the participants, only observing from a distance/afar.

• Jane Goodall observation on chimpanzees behavior in their natural environment.

Correlation Method

• A mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases, or decreases as another variable increases/decreases.

• Psychologists investigate whether observed behavior or a measured trait is related to, or correlated with another.

Correlation Efficient

Number between +1.00 and -1.000 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

• A relationship between the two variables that move in tandem - that is, in the same direction

• One variable decreases as the other, one variable increases the same as the other.

Negative Correlation

• One variable increases, the other variable decreases.

• Correlational research may suggest and prove.

false only suggest but does not prove.

Experiment

• A scientific method that seeks to confirm cause and effect relationship by introducing independent variables, and observing their effect on dependent variables.

• It allows psychologists to control the experiences of participants and draw conclusions about cause & effect. 

Independent Variable

• Condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed.

• Example: experiment is about alcohol causing aggression, in this case the alcohol is the _ .

Dependent Variable

• Measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable 

• Results, outcomes, effects in an experiment. 

• Example: alcohol causing aggression, in this one, the aggression is the _ .

Control Groups

• In experiment, groups whose members do not obtain treatment, while others are held constant.

Experimental Group

• Groups whose members obtain the treatment.

• Example: effects of alcohol on aggression, _ group ingest alcohol while the control group does not. With that the researchers can measure results based on the experiences shown by each group.

Blind

• Experimental terminology, unaware or not one has received treatment.

Double Blind

• Study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment. 

Placebo

• Fake treatment, such as sugar pills that appears to be genuine

• When a patient asks for medicine but the physician thinks it's unnecessary, the physician gives unmedicated pills.

• When patient reports that the _ helped them, it means they expected pills to be of help but not the biochemical effects of pills

• The idea of taking pills, not the chemical effects. 

Informed Consent

• Participant’s agreement to participant in research after receiving information about the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatments. 

• Give them control and decrease the stress of participating.

Confidentiality

• Psychologists keep the records of research participants and clients confidential to respect people’s privacy and allow them to express more.

Debrief

• Explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant. 

• According to the ethical guidelines of the APA animals may be harmed only when there is no alternative/the researchers believes that the research benefits can ‘justify the harm’

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Critical Thinking

• Way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involves skepticism and examination of evidence. 

WHAT CAN PSYCHOLOGISTS DO

• Engage in research, practice, and teaching.

Clinical Psychologists

• Helps people with disorders adjust to the demands of life. 

• Evaluate problems through interviews and psychological tests.

• Largest subgroup of psychologists.

Counseling  Psychologists

• Clients typically have adjustment problems not serious psychological disorders

• Uses interviews and tests to define their clients problems.

School Psychologists

• Employed by school systems to identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning

• Helps the school make decisions about the placement of students in learning classes.

Educational Psychologists

• Focuses on course planning and instructional methods for school systems instead of individual students. 

Developmental Psychologists

• Study the changes - physical, cognitive, social, and emotional that occur throughout the lifespan 

Personality Psychologists

•  Measure human traits and determine influences on human thought, processes, feelings and behavior.

Social Psychologists

• Concerned with the nature and causes of individuals thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations.

• Focus on social influencers.

Environmental Psychologists

• Ways that people and the environment - the natural and human environment influence one another.

Experimental Psychologist

• Specialize in basic processes such as nervous system, sensation & perception, learning memory , thought and emotion. 

Industrial Psychologists

Focuses on the relationship of people and work

Organizational Psychologists

• Focuses on the study of behavior in an organization such as business

Human Factor  Psychologists

• Make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user-friendly

Consumer Psychologists

• Study of behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict.

Health  Psychologists

• Study the effects of stress on health problems such as headache, cardiovascular disease, and cancer

• Guide clients towards healthier behavior patterns.

Forensic Psychologists

• Apply psychology to the criminal justice

• Also treat psychologically ill-offenders, consult attorneys on matters such as picking a jury and analyze offender’s behavior and mental processes.

Sport Psychologists

• Help athletes concentrate on their performance and not on the crowd

• Enhances performance and avoid choking under pressure

Aristotle

• A greek philosopher (384-322 BCE) 

• Argued that human behavior, like the movement of the seas and stars is subject to rules and laws

• Argued that science could rationally be treated by the information gathered by the five senses

• Outlined laws of associationism: how we learn and remember things

• Explored the nature of cause and effect

• Motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Democritus

• (400 BCE) suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of body and mind

• Behavior is influenced by external stimulation (five senses)

• Raise a question regarding free will/choice.

Socrates

• Know thyself

• Suggested to rely on rational thought and introspection to gain self knowledge.

• Pointed that people are social creatures who influence each other

Introspection 

• examination/observation of behavior and mental processes 

• Based on know thyself by socrates.

Gustav Theodor Fechner

• (1801-1887) published his book element of psychophysics.

Elements of Psychophysics

• Showed how physical events are related to psychological sensation

• Published by Gustav Theodor Fechner

Wilhelm Wundt

• Father of psychology

• Established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

• Founder of structuralism.

Structuralism

• Attempted to break conscious experience down into objective sensations, feelings, and images to form experience.

• Believed that mind functions if we combine objective and subjective elements of experience.

William James

• (1842-1910) major figure in the development of psychology

• Focused on the relation between conscious behavior and experience be broken down into objective sensations & subjective feelings as per the structuralists maintain

• Founder of functionalism.

Functionalism

• Emphasizes the uses or functions of the mind rather than the elements of experience

• Based on charles darwin’s theory of evolution

John Broadus Watson

• (1878-1958) the founder of american behaviorism.

• Believed that if psychology is a natural science, it should be limited to observable, measurable events that is behavior alone. 

B.F. Skinner

• (1904-1990) also contributed to behaviorism

• Believed that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced that is their behavior has a positive outcome.

• Remarkable combinations of behavior can be thought of by means of reinforcement.

Behaviorism

• Focuses on the observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses 

• Less focus to covert and more on overt behavior

• Product of learning 

Reinforcement

• A stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response.

• Example: he trained rats with the use of food as reinforcers to climb ladders, push toys etc.

Gestalt Psychology

• Whole is greater than the sum of its part

• Founder: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler 

Sigmund Freud

• Father of psychoanalysis 

Psychoanalysis

• The name of both theory of personality and the method of psychotherapy. 

• Our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood traumas

• Aims to help patients gain insight into their conflicts and to find socially acce[table ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs

Psychodynamics

• Center of unconsciousness

• Childhood experiences

• Umbrella term

Conscious

• Awareness of internal and external stimuli. 

• Awareness of thoughts, feelings and emotion

• Sensory awareness of the environment

Preconscious

• Not currently in awareness but readily available

• Long term memories are stuck in here

• Can be brought to consciousness by focusing one’s attention to it.

Unconscious

• Ideas and feelings that are not available to awareness

• We are always influenced by this

Eros

• Sex life/instinct, vitality to do/make something 

• Driven by passionate desire.

Thanatus

• Aggression / death instinct

• Engage in risky and destructive behaviors

Traumatic Experiences

• Influences your behavior that is why it is pushed down to unconsciousness.

ID

• The primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories

• Pleasurable principle

• Develops during infancy up to toddler

Ego

• Sense of self and the ability to interact with the outside world 

Superego

• Ethical component of the personality and produces the moral standard by which ego operates

• Morality principle

• If the ego and superego is balanced, it will lead to anxiety, that will cause you to create defense mechanisms.

• false, if they are not balanced only then it will lead to anxiety, that will cause you to create defense mechanisms.

• According to Freud, dreams come in modified forms. Dreams have meanings - they are repressed wishes/desires.

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Dream Analysis

• Dream interpretation

• Door to unconscious 

Freudian Slips

• Errors that regarded as revealing unconscious feelings/thoughts 

• Slips of tongue