SSC 321 Final

Steps in Data Processing

-Data Editing

-Data Coding

-Enter Data

-Clean Data

Descriptive Statistics

Used to describe or summarize a data set, measures central tendency and variance.

Inferential Statistics

Applies inferences about sample data to the population, looks to understand relationships between variables. Also includes hypothesis testing; the “normal curve”, bi-variate, and multivariate analysis.

Mean (Measure of Central Tendency)

Average of all values (for interval and ratio level variables).

Median (Measure of Central Tendency)

Middle value (for interval and ratio level variables).

Mode (Measure of Central Tendency)

Most frequently occurring value (for nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level variables).

Standard Deviation (Measure of Variance)

The average distance of a data point from the mean value.

Range (Measure of Variance)

Difference between the highest and lowest values within a dataset.

Outlier Values (Threat to Descriptive Statistics)

Extreme values that might skew the mean.

Nominal (Level of Measurement)

Categorical information (ex: race, sport played, etc.)

-Mode

Ordinal (Level of Measurement)

Ranked but not equal intervals (ex: strongly dislike, dislike, neutral, like, strongly like)

-Mode, median, and range

Interval (Level of Measurement)

Ranked in equal intervals (ex: 1-10; 11-20; 21-20)

-Mode, median, mean, range, and standard deviation

Ratio (Level of Measurement)

Numerical with a true zero (ex: income, mph in car)

-Mode, median, mean, range, and standard deviation

Bi-variate Analysis (Hypothesis Test)

Assess the relationships between two variables.

Multivariate Analysis (Hypothesis Test)

Assess the relationships between three or more variables.

Grounded Theory (Qualitative)

Inductive approach; data first then conclusion/observation.

Action Research (Qualitative)

Linking theory to social change.

Phenomenological Research (Qualitative)

Interpreting participants lived experiences.

Narrative Research (Qualitative)

Examining how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.

Case Studies (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

In-depth study about one case (one person, one group, one place, one event, etc.)

Ex: studying the life story of one criminal, using all case records, biographies, court notes, etc. about the person.

Ethnographies (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

Researcher immerses themselves into a culture group to get a “real life” picture.

Ex: Immersing yourself in a motorcycle club to get a clear picture of the club's dynamics.

Observations (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

Researcher observes a person, group, place, etc.

Ex: observing a child in a classroom and noting their behavior, attitude, ability to focus, etc.

Note: may be combined with other research methods.

Interviews (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

Asking the participant open-ended questions (whether in a structured, unstructured, or semi-structured manner to collect data.

Ex: Interviewing prisoners about their life histories.

Focus Groups (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

Brings a small group of people together into one space, and asks them questions in a moderated setting.

Ex: getting a group of hikers together to ask them their thoughts about a new hiking product .

Surveys (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

Using a questionnaire to ask participants about a certain topic.

Ex: surveying participants about their experience in a drug program.

Secondary Research (Data Collection Method in Qualitative Research)

Analyzing secondary data (data collected by someone else).

Ex: using case notes to analyze court systems. 

Note: may be coming with other research methods (ex: case studies) 

Strengths of Qualitative Research

-Natural settings 

-Flexibility 

-New ideas 

-Insightful 

-In-depth 

Criticisms of Qualitative Research

-Subjectivity 

-Limited external validity (generalizability) 

-Time and money intensive 

-Limited reliability 

Qualitative Research

-More in-depth, smaller samples, etc. 

-Focus on participants "lived experience" 

-Usually inductive 

-Non-statistical interpretation of data 

-Sensitivity to researcher's role and bias 

Secondary Data

Analyzing previously collected data.

Strengths of Secondary Data Analysis

-Less time/money 

-Sometimes uses larger samples – greater generalizability 

-May allow data from multiple studies to be combined 

Limitations of Secondary Data Analysis

-No control over methodology  (measurement of variables, variables included, wording of questions)

 -Limited questions may "fit" the data collected 

-Only certain datasets may be accessible 

-Possible outdated data 

Content Analysis

The study of human communication.

Ex: understanding propaganda wording; understanding how participants respond to differently worded survey questions about mental illness. 

Strengths of Content Analysis

-Less money 

-Easily replicable (possibly leads to greater reliability of findings) 

-Unobtrusive data collection 

Limitations of Content Analysis

-Very time-intensive 

-Bias in coding 

-Might be overly reductive

Historical Research

Investigates social phenomena during a time-period(s) from the past.

Comparative Research

Investigates and compares social phenomena between countries.

Historical Events Research

Social events studied at one time-period from the past.

Historical Process Research

Historical process studied over a long period of time.

Cross-Sectional Comparative Research

Compares data from one time-period between multiple nations.

Comparative Historical Research

Compares data from more than one time-period between multiple nations.

Event Structure Analysis

Qualitative approach. Five steps, attempting to understand the underlying structure of an event.

Oral History

Qualitative approach. Data collected through intensive interviews with participants in past weeks.

Ex: interviewing survivors of 9/11.

Strengths of Historical and Comparative Research

-Interesting 

-Greater insight due to studying multiple points in time and/or multiple countries 

-Understanding how social processes may affect countries on a large-scale 

Limitations of Historical and Comparative Research

-May be difficult to operationally define variables, as different countries may define things differently 

-Historical records may be inaccurate or difficult to find (history always written by the victors) 

-Possible missing data 

-Limited cases 

-Cases selected based on availability 

-Cost and time intensive 

Survey Research

Research in which information is obtained from a sample of individuals through their response to questions about themselves or others.

Benefits of Survey Research

-Versatility

-Efficiency

-Generalizability

Errors in Survey Research

-Poor measurement

-Nonresponse

-Inadequate coverage of target population

-Sampling error

Index

When questions are combined to create an overall variable score.