Chapter 6: Stereotyping, Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism

What is the focus of attribution theory?

The theory attempts to determine the cause of behavior by analyzing how people explain their own actions and the actions of others.

Why are people motivated according to attribution theory?

People are motivated to understand the causes behind behavior, seeking reasons for why they and others act in certain ways.

What are the two major dimensions used in attribution theory?

Internal vs. external causes and stable vs. unstable causes.

What are internal factors in attribution theory?

Personality traits, moods, attitudes, abilities, and effort—all factors within the person.

What are external factors in attribution theory?

Luck, other people, and situational factors—elements outside the person.

What are stable factors in attribution theory?

Consistent traits like intelligence, personality, willpower, and judgment.

What are unstable factors in attribution theory?

Temporary or changing aspects like mood and effort on a specific task.

What are the four combinations of attribution types?

Internal-stable, internal-unstable, external-stable, and external-unstable.

What did Lee Ross (1977) say about attribution tendencies?

People tend to overuse dispositional (internal-stable) attributions and underestimate external causes of behavior.

What is the fundamental attribution error (FAE)?

The tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal, stable) causes of behavior and underestimate external causes.

Why is the fundamental attribution error considered an "error"?

Because it can lead us to ignore possible external or situational explanations for someone's behavior.

Does making an internal attribution always mean we're wrong?

No, but failing to consider external causes increases the risk of making the fundamental attribution error.

What is an example of an internal-stable attribution?

Bobby hits Jimmy because he's an aggressive child—his aggression is seen as a consistent personality trait.

What is an example of an internal-unstable attribution?

Bobby hits Jimmy because he was in a bad mood—his behavior is due to a temporary internal state.

What is an example of an external-stable attribution?

Everyone hits Jimmy—suggesting the cause lies in a consistent external factor, such as something about Jimmy or the environment.

What is an example of an external-unstable attribution?

Jimmy hits Bobby, and Bobby hits back—Bobby's action is seen as a temporary reaction to an external situation.

What did Choi, Nisbett, and Norenzayan find about cultural differences in attribution?

They found that people from Asian countries are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error (FAE) compared to those from Western cultures.

What is the ultimate attribution error?

The tendency to attribute the cause of an individual's behavior to dispositional traits of their entire group rather than to the individual alone.

Who introduced the concept of the ultimate attribution error?

Thomas Pettigrew in 1979.

How does the ultimate attribution error differ from the fundamental attribution error?

While the FAE focuses on individuals, the ultimate attribution error applies internal-stable attributions to an entire group based on one member's behavior.

What is an example of the ultimate attribution error?

If Bobby, an African American child, hits someone and the conclusion is "all African American children are aggressive," this reflects the ultimate attribution error.

What is a stereotype?

A stereotype is a generalization about a group or its members based on their categorization or group membership.

What is prejudice?

A judgment about a group or its members based on their categorization or group membership; it can be positive or negative but is typically seen as negative.

How is prejudice different from a stereotype?

While a stereotype is a general belief about a group, prejudice involves an evaluative judgment—often emotional or attitudinal—toward that group.

What is an example of prejudice?

Someone being prejudiced against Asians for being collectivistic, believing they suppress individual freedom or creativity.

What is discrimination?

Discrimination is negative behavior directed toward a group or its members based on their categorization or group membership.

How is discrimination different from prejudice?

Prejudice is an attitude or judgment, while discrimination is the action or behavior that results from that attitude.

Can discrimination occur without prejudice?

Yes, sometimes individuals may discriminate due to societal norms or pressures, even if they don't personally hold prejudiced beliefs.

What is racism?

Racism is discriminatory behavior that is supported by institutional power, resulting in systemic advantages for some groups over others.

How does racism differ from general discrimination?

While discrimination can occur between individuals, racism involves institutional or structural support that reinforces inequality.

Who can engage in racism according to this definition?

Those who are on the upside of power—meaning they have access to institutional backing—can engage in racism against those on the downside of power.

When do attitudes like prejudice and stereotypes become harmful?

They become harmful when they are expressed behaviorally as discrimination or institutionally as racism, leading to real-world consequences for others.

Why is it hard to eliminate prejudicial or stereotypic attitudes?

These attitudes are often deeply ingrained through years of social learning and exposure, making them difficult to unlearn.

How can we prevent harm from these attitudes?

By becoming aware of them and actively working to counteract them, we can avoid acting on them and prevent hurting others.

What happens when we act on prejudicial or stereotypic attitudes?

We cross the line into discrimination or racism, causing real harm to individuals and reinforcing systemic inequality.

What did Steele & Aronson (1995) study?

They explored the impact of stereotype threat on academic performance, particularly in African American students.

What is stereotype threat?

The fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group, which can negatively affect performance.

What were the findings of Steele & Aronson's study?

African American students performed equally well as European American students when they believed a test was simply difficult. However, when told the test measured racial differences, their performance declined.

What does the study (Steele & Aronson 1995) suggest about the effects of stereotype threat?

Believing that a test could confirm negative stereotypes can impair performance, even among highly capable individuals.

What did research on women and math performance reveal about stereotype threat?

Studies showed that first-year female students with high SAT math scores performed equally to male students on a GRE math test when they believed it was simply a difficult test. However, when told the test measured gender differences in ability, their performance declined—demonstrating the negative impact of stereotype threat.

How does stereotype threat specifically affect women in math-related testing?

When women are reminded of negative gender stereotypes (e.g., "women aren't good at math"), it can lead to increased anxiety and self-doubt, which lowers their actual performance—even if they are highly capable.

Why is the study on women and math important in understanding stereotype threat?

It highlights how social and psychological factors, like stereotype threat, can directly impact academic outcomes and reinforce existing gender gaps in STEM fields.

```

What conditions must be present for stereotype threat to occur?

Stereotype threat typically arises when (1) an individual excels in an area that contradicts a negative stereotype about their group, (2) the stereotype targets a highly valued skill or domain, (3) the domain is personally important to the individual, and (4) the task or test is challenging.

Why is it significant that the individual excels in an area contrary to the stereotype?

Because the threat of confirming a negative stereotype is more psychologically impactful when the individual values and identifies with that skill area.

Why does the importance of the domain matter in stereotype threat?

Stereotype threat is stronger when the skill area is central to the individual's self-concept, goals, or identity (e.g., career path or academic strength).

What role does task difficulty play in stereotype threat?

The more challenging the task, the more likely anxiety and self-doubt from stereotype threat will interfere with performance.

What's an example of a stereotype threat scenario?

An Asian American student excelling in English who feels pressure during a verbal test in a therapy graduate program may underperform if reminded of stereotypes about Asian Americans being weaker in verbal communication.

What does Steele suggest about the universality of stereotypes?

Steele suggests that no one is immune to stereotypes—everyone can be affected when their group is the target of a negative stereotype.

What stereotypes were tested in the golf study involving Black and White athletes?

White athletes were affected by the stereotype that they are less naturally athletic, while Black athletes were affected by the stereotype that they are less intelligent or strategic.

What were the conditions of the miniature golf study?

Half the participants were told the course tested athletic ability, and the other half were told it tested complex planning skills.

Based on stereotype threat theory, what were the likely findings of the golf study?

White athletes likely underperformed when told the course tested athleticism, while Black athletes likely underperformed when told it tested strategic thinking—each affected by the stereotype about their group.

What does the golf study demonstrate about stereotype threat?

It shows that performance can be hindered not by actual ability, but by the psychological burden of a negative stereotype about one's group.

How can negative stereotypes develop according to Hamilton and colleagues (1996)?

They can develop from normal cognitive processes, particularly through an overestimation of the association between negative behaviors and minority group membership.

What is the more benign way that stereotypes form?

Through basic cognitive biases, like illusory correlation, where people overestimate the frequency of co-occurring rare events (e.g., minority status and negative behavior).

Why might ethnic minorities be more likely to be labeled with negative stereotypes?

Because people tend to over-remember or exaggerate instances when a minority individual displays negative behavior, reinforcing false associations.

What are the two general ways stereotypes can form?

One is benign—rooted in unconscious cognitive biases. The other is more malicious—driven by intentional prejudice, discrimination, or power dynamics.

What does Hamilton say about how stereotypes form from co-occurring events?

Hamilton explains that when two minority events co-occur—such as a minority individual engaging in negative behavior—people are more likely to notice and remember it, leading to an overestimation of how often it happens.

Why do people overestimate negative behaviors by minority groups?

Because both the individual (being a minority) and the negative behavior are statistically less common, their co-occurrence stands out more and is given special attention.

What is an example of Hamilton's theory in action?

If a rarely encountered ethnic minority individual commits a crime, an observer may strongly register this event and falsely conclude that such behavior is more common among that group.

Why do these overestimations contribute to negative stereotypes?

They reinforce incorrect associations between minority groups and negative behaviors, even though such events are statistically rare.

What is an illusory correlation in the context of stereotypes?

An illusory correlation occurs when people perceive a relationship between two minority events—such as a person's group membership and negative behavior—even when no real correlation exists.

How does illusory correlation contribute to stereotypes?

It causes overestimations of how often certain negative behaviors occur within minority groups, reinforcing false and harmful generalizations.

What is an example of illusory correlation involving shoplifting?

Even if European Americans and Latinxs shoplift at the same rate, store managers may believe Latinxs shoplift more because the co-occurrence of a minority group member and negative behavior stands out more in memory.

Why does the co-occurrence of minority status and negative behavior have a greater impact?

Because both are statistically less frequent, their combination is more memorable and attention-grabbing, leading to biased judgments.

What is a more malicious reason negative stereotypes develop?

They can be intentionally created or promoted by those in power to justify the suppression or unequal treatment of those not in power.

What happens when two cognitions are in conflict, according to Festinger (1957)?

A person experiences cognitive dissonance—an uncomfortable psychological tension—and is motivated to change one of the cognitions to reduce that discomfort.

How strong is the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance?

It is as strong as basic drives like hunger or thirst, pushing individuals to resolve the internal conflict.

What is an example of cognitive dissonance involving behavior and self-image?

If we behave badly toward someone but think of ourselves as a good person, we may create an excuse or justification for our behavior to reduce the dissonance.

Why do we make excuses for bad behavior?

To maintain a positive self-image and reduce the psychological discomfort caused by the conflict between our actions and our beliefs.

How does psychoanalytic theory explain the release of hostility?

It suggests that expressing hostility through actions (catharsis) leads to a release of negative energy, reducing aggressive feelings.

How does cognitive dissonance theory contradict the idea of catharsis?

Cognitive dissonance predicts that hurting someone does not relieve hostility—instead, it increases discomfort, leading us to justify our actions by blaming or demeaning the victim.

What happens when we justify hurting someone, according to cognitive dissonance?

We may derogate the victim to reduce dissonance, which can increase our hostility toward them and open the door to further aggression.

What is the long-term effect of justifying harmful actions?

It can reinforce negative attitudes and escalate aggression, rather than resolving it.

What was the purpose of President Roosevelt's Fair Deal during the Great Depression?

It aimed to provide social safety nets like unemployment insurance and housing assistance to help Americans recover economically.

How did Southern politicians influence Fair Deal policies?

To gain political support, the Fair Deal excluded agricultural and domestic workers—jobs largely held by people of color—from receiving benefits.

What role did FHA loans play between 1934-1962?

The Federal Housing Administration provided low-interest loans to help families buy homes, but discriminatory practices often excluded people of color.

What benefits did the GI Bill offer returning WWII soldiers?

It provided low-interest home mortgages, startup business loans, and financial support for college or university education.

Who was largely excluded from Fair Deal and GI Bill benefits?

People of color, particularly Black Americans, were systematically denied access due to discriminatory laws and practices, despite being eligible in theory.

What is an example of overt racism in U.S. history during World War II?

The forced internment of Japanese Americans in seven U.S. states after the attack on Pearl Harbor, based on unfounded fears that they posed a threat to national security.

Which states were involved in Japanese American internment?

California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arkansas.

How were Japanese Americans affected during the internment?

They were transported with little warning, forced to sell belongings quickly through "evacuation sales," and stripped of their homes, businesses, and communities.

What does the quote about "evacuation sales" reflect?

It reveals how others took advantage of Japanese Americans' forced relocation by seeking bargains, ignoring the human impact and injustice of the situation.

What is an example of a personal experience from this time?

A student recalled how their family had two restaurants taken from them during the internment, illustrating the personal and economic losses suffered by many.

What is overt racism?

Overt racism is discriminatory behavior where individuals from the majority group openly and consciously commit hostile acts of aggression against racial minorities without apology.

What is an example of overt racism?

Acts like racial slurs, hate crimes, or the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII are examples of overt racism.

What is covert, intentional racism?

Covert, intentional racism involves discriminatory behavior that is deliberate but hidden or disguised, allowing the perpetrator to deny racist intent.

What is covert, unintentional racism?

It is discriminatory behavior that is not deliberate but still reinforces racist practices, beliefs, or traditions.

What is an example of covert, unintentional racism?

During the 2002 Winter Olympics, media coverage framed the victory of an American athlete over Michelle Kwan in a way that suggested she was a "forever alien," despite being American—reflecting subtle racial bias.

What is symbolic racism?

Symbolic racism involves using non-racial issues to promote racist attitudes, often by associating those issues with a particular racial group rather than the majority group.

What is an example of symbolic racism?

Criticism of welfare programs may be framed as a concern about economic responsibility, but symbolically target racial minorities if they're disproportionately associated with welfare use—regardless of the facts.

How did the response to Hurricane Katrina illustrate covert, unintentional racism?

Media coverage used racially biased language to describe similar actions differently based on race, often without conscious intent.

What example from the Associated Press highlights this bias?

A Black individual was described as "looting" a grocery store, while a white individual doing the same was said to have "found bread and soda"—revealing a racial double standard.

What impact can this type of media framing have?

It perpetuates negative perceptions of certain racial groups, even when the behavior being described is the same.

How did the response to Hurricane Maria raise questions about racism?

The delayed and seemingly indifferent response to Puerto Rico compared to the quick aid given to Texas and Florida led many to question whether it reflected covert, intentional or unintentional racism.

Was the response to Hurricane Maria an example of covert racism?

Yes, it is debated whether it was covert, unintentional racism—rooted in unconscious bias—or covert, intentional racism—where the neglect was deliberate but disguised.

What were the key differences in the federal response to Hurricane Maria versus Harvey and Irma?

While aid and presidential visits followed quickly after Harvey and Irma, Trump visited Puerto Rico two weeks after Maria, and critical supplies were left undelivered for days.

What comments contributed to the perception of racial bias?

Homeland Security Secretary Elaine Duke called the situation a "good news story" despite widespread suffering, and Trump criticized Puerto Ricans for not helping themselves, which some saw as invoking racial stereotypes.

What stereotype did researcher Garcia believe was being used?

Garcia suggested that Trump was invoking the "lazy Mexican" stereotype to portray Puerto Ricans as undeserving or unmotivated in their recovery efforts.

What stimulates the debate between covert, unintentional racism and covert, intentional racism?

Patterns in Trump's past behavior and statements about people of color raise questions about whether his actions reflect unconscious bias or deliberate prejudice.