Key Concepts in American Foreign Policy

9/11 Resolution (Authorization for Use of Military Force - AUMF 2001)

A congressional resolution passed shortly after the September 11 attacks authorizing the president to use all necessary force against those responsible, forming the legal basis for the War on Terror.

Advise and Consent (presidential appointments)

The constitutional role of the Senate to review and approve or reject presidential appointments to executive and judicial offices, including cabinet members and federal judges.

Allison (Graham) article

Refers to Graham Allison's work on decision-making in foreign policy, especially his 'Essence of Decision' model analyzing the Cuban Missile Crisis through three lenses: rational actor, organizational behavior, and bureaucratic politics.

Almond-Lippmann Consensus

The view that public opinion is volatile, lacks coherence, and should not significantly influence foreign policy—based on early Cold War-era political science.

America First

A U.S. foreign policy perspective prioritizing national interest, sovereignty, and non-intervention, historically used before WWII and revived during the Trump administration.

Asymmetric bipolarity

A global power structure in which two dominant states exist, but one is significantly more powerful than the other, influencing the nature of their interactions and the broader international system.

Bas v. Tingy (1800)

A U.S. Supreme Court case that distinguished between declared and 'imperfect' wars, affirming Congress's power to authorize limited military action without a formal declaration of war.

Bipartisanship

Cooperation between the two major political parties in the U.S. to enact legislation or pursue policy goals, especially important in foreign and defense policy consensus.

Bureaucratic politics

A theory of policy-making that sees foreign policy outcomes as the result of competition and negotiation among various government agencies and officials with differing interests.

Bush Doctrine

A post-9/11 U.S. foreign policy asserting the right to preemptively attack perceived threats, particularly terrorism and rogue states, and promoting democracy globally.

Case-Zablocki Act (1972)

A law requiring the president to report all international agreements (executive agreements) to Congress within 60 days, enhancing congressional oversight.

Congressional oversight

The power of Congress to monitor and review actions of the executive branch, including military operations and foreign policy decisions, to ensure accountability and legality.

Cooper-Church Amendment (1970)

A legislative restriction passed during the Vietnam War to limit U.S. military involvement in Cambodia, reflecting growing congressional resistance to presidential war powers.

Curtiss-Wright decision (1936)

A Supreme Court case affirming broad presidential authority in foreign affairs, distinguishing the president's power in international relations from that in domestic matters.

Declaration of war

A formal act by Congress, as specified in the Constitution, authorizing the use of military force against another state, though rarely used in recent U.S. history.

Department of State

The executive department responsible for U.S. foreign policy and international relations, led by the Secretary of State and overseeing diplomacy, embassies, and treaty negotiations.

Deterrence

A strategy aimed at preventing hostile actions by threatening credible and severe retaliation, central to Cold War nuclear policy and contemporary security doctrine.

Enumerated powers

Specific powers granted to Congress by the Constitution, including declaring war, regulating commerce, and funding the military, forming the legal basis for legislative authority.

Executive agreements

International agreements made by the president without Senate ratification, often used for routine or less formal foreign policy matters.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

A group of agencies that support the president in policy-making and administration, including the National Security Council, Office of Management and Budget, and others.

Fast track authority (Trade Promotion Authority)

Congressional authorization allowing the president to negotiate trade agreements that Congress can approve or reject but not amend or filibuster.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon where a group prioritizes consensus over critical thinking, often leading to flawed decisions—famously applied to foreign policy fiascoes like the Bay of Pigs.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

A congressional resolution that gave President Johnson broad authority to use military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war, later criticized for lack of oversight.

Hegemonic international system

A world order dominated by a single powerful state (hegemon) that maintains stability and enforces rules, often cited in discussions of U.S. global leadership.

Humanitarian intervention

The use of military force by one or more states to prevent or stop widespread suffering or human rights abuses in another state, often without the host nation's consent.

Inherent powers

Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but deemed necessary for the president or Congress to fulfill their duties, especially in foreign affairs and national security.

INS v. Chadha (1983)

A Supreme Court case that struck down the legislative veto as unconstitutional, affirming the separation of powers by ruling that Congress cannot unilaterally overturn executive actions without following the lawmaking process.

Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980

A law requiring intelligence agencies to keep congressional oversight committees informed of covert operations and significant intelligence activities, enhancing accountability after abuses in the 1970s.

Iron triangle

A policy-making relationship among congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that can dominate specific policy areas and limit broader democratic accountability.

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)

The senior military advisory body to the President and Secretary of Defense, composed of the top officers from each branch of the armed forces.

Korematsu v. United States (1944)

A controversial Supreme Court decision upholding the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII as a wartime necessity; widely criticized and effectively overturned by later rulings.

Legislative veto

A mechanism allowing Congress to nullify executive actions, declared unconstitutional in INS v. Chadha as violating the separation of powers.

Legislative/executive agreement

An international agreement that requires approval by a simple majority in both chambers of Congress, as opposed to treaties that require a two-thirds Senate vote.

Liberal International Order (Rules-Based Order)

A global system established after WWII centered on democratic governance, open markets, and multilateral institutions like the UN and WTO to promote peace and cooperation.

Military-industrial complex

A term popularized by President Eisenhower warning of the close relationship between the military, defense contractors, and policymakers, which could influence foreign policy decisions.

Missouri v. Holland (1920)

A Supreme Court case affirming the supremacy of federal treaties over state laws, ruling that treaties can expand federal power in areas traditionally reserved to the states.

National Security Council (NSC)

A body within the Executive Office of the President that coordinates national security and foreign policy among military, intelligence, and diplomatic agencies.

Neo-liberal economic order

A global system promoting free markets, deregulation, privatization, and reduced government intervention in the economy, dominant since the 1980s.

Obama "Pivot" (to Asia)

A strategic reorientation of U.S. foreign policy under President Obama emphasizing stronger ties with Asia-Pacific allies, economic integration, and balancing China's rise.

Organizational theory

A framework in political science and public administration emphasizing how institutional structures, routines, and standard procedures shape decision-making and outcomes.

Oversight function of Congress

Congress's role in monitoring and evaluating the actions of the executive branch to ensure legality, efficiency, and alignment with legislative intent.

Political question

A doctrine allowing courts to decline cases that involve issues more appropriately handled by the executive or legislative branches, often applied in foreign affairs disputes.

Power of the purse

Congress's constitutional authority to raise and allocate government funds, giving it significant influence over executive branch actions, including foreign policy and military spending.

Pre-emptive war

Military action taken to neutralize an imminent threat before it materializes, often justified under the principle of self-defense but controversial in international law.

Prerogative powers

Extraordinary powers claimed by the president (or executive) in times of emergency or national crisis, sometimes without direct constitutional or legal authority.

Presidential finding

A formal document signed by the president authorizing a covert intelligence operation, required by law to notify congressional oversight committees.

Prize Cases (1863)

A Supreme Court decision affirming the president's power to initiate a blockade during the Civil War without congressional approval, recognizing inherent executive wartime authority.

Reception clause of the Constitution

The clause (Article II, Section 3) giving the president the power to receive foreign ambassadors, interpreted to affirm the president's role in recognizing foreign governments.

Sole organ

A doctrine from United States v. Curtiss-Wright asserting that the president is the sole representative of the nation in foreign affairs, justifying broad executive authority.

Standard operating procedures (SOPs)

Routine procedures used by bureaucracies that help maintain order and efficiency but can also limit flexibility and innovation in foreign policy decision-making.

Stewardship theory

A theory of presidential power asserting that the president is authorized to do anything not explicitly forbidden by the Constitution, especially in foreign affairs.

Trade Promotion Authority (TPA)

Congressional legislation granting the president authority to negotiate trade agreements that can be fast-tracked through Congress without amendments or filibusters.

Transnational advocacy networks (TANs)

Coalitions of NGOs, activists, and other actors across borders that work together to promote causes like human rights, environmental protection, and labor standards.

Treaties

Formal agreements between countries that require a two-thirds majority in the U.S. Senate to be ratified and are legally binding under international law.

Treaty amendments, reservations, and understandings

Modifications or conditions placed on U.S. treaty ratification: Amendments change the treaty text. Reservations exclude or alter legal effect. Understandings clarify interpretation without changing obligations.

Two presidencies theory

A theory suggesting the president has greater authority and effectiveness in foreign policy than domestic affairs, due to less congressional resistance and greater discretion.

Two-level game

A theory in international relations that views international negotiations as occurring simultaneously at the domestic and international levels, where leaders must satisfy both.

U.S. v. Belmont (1937)

A Supreme Court case affirming that executive agreements are valid international commitments and that states cannot interfere with foreign policy conducted by the federal government.

United States Trade Representative (USTR)

A Cabinet-level official who serves as the chief U.S. trade negotiator and advisor to the president, responsible for developing and coordinating U.S. international trade policy.

Vesting Clause of the Constitution

A clause in Article II, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution stating, 'The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States,' serving as a basis for the president's broad powers, especially in foreign affairs.

Vietnam Syndrome

A term describing American public and political reluctance to engage in overseas military interventions after the perceived failure and trauma of the Vietnam War.

War on Terror

A global campaign launched by the U.S. after the September 11, 2001 attacks to combat terrorism, particularly targeting al-Qaeda and its affiliates, and justifying military actions in Afghanistan, Iraq, and beyond.

War Powers Act (1973)

A U.S. law intended to check the president's power to commit U.S. forces to armed conflict without congressional consent, requiring notification within 48 hours and withdrawal within 60 days unless Congress authorizes the action.

Youngstown Sheet and Tube v. Sawyer (1952)

A landmark Supreme Court case that limited presidential power, ruling that President Truman lacked authority to seize steel mills during the Korean War without congressional approval.

Zivotofsky v. Kerry (2015)

A Supreme Court case affirming the president's exclusive power to recognize foreign sovereigns, ruling that Congress could not mandate the listing of 'Jerusalem, Israel' on U.S. passports.

Zone of Twilight

A concept from Justice Jackson's concurrence in Youngstown, referring to areas where presidential authority is uncertain and may overlap with congressional power—typically requiring political resolution.