Behavioral Final

instinct

adaptive behavior that solves problems in animal's naturalistic environment

• genetically determined
• minimal learning
• adaptive
• species-specific

observation in ethology

need to understand the behavior and the context it exists in so that you can design experiments

• i.e. waggle dance of the bees
• field experimentation in natural environments (beewolf wasp)

phylogeny in ethology

can link genetic relationships to ancestral behaviors and sequence of evolutionary events

fixed action pattern

stereotyped response (predictable structure)
complex (not a reflex)
species-typical
simple but specific stimulus to elicit the behavior
triggered (independent of feedback)
independent of experience!

sign stimulus

a simple but specific stimulus that triggers the behavioral pattern

super-normal stimuli (signal bias)

animals can respond and will preferentially engage with an "unnatural or super normal" stimulus because animals have sensory bias built into their processing (think of the goose on the gigantic fake egg)

innate releasing mechanism

neural decoding of the sign stimulus that releases a fixed-action pattern from inhibition. the sign stimulus will trigger the "release" and allow for behavior to ensue

ümwelt

need to have a species-specific world- view when designing experiments and thinking about behavior

modifiable behavior

-search for the general rules of behavior: what are the basic rules of animals modifying their behavior and learning?
-cognition and its evolution
-there is an explicit comparison to human behavior (lower = more primitive

what is the problem with comparative psychology study of behavior?

if all the animals are current

what is the thought process that led to a gradual reduction in diversity of species?

if mammals are good for studying learning

methods in comparative psychology: experimental control

• objective measures
• control environment
• control genetics
• variable manipulation
• simplify behavior

law of effect (Thorndike)

• a successful response followed by reward elicits that response more quickly
• stimulus response (S-R) bonding that the reward strengthens connection between stimulus and response
• this is a mechanistic view

content of learning (Tolman)

• purposeful goal (directed behavior)
• not just stimulus response relationship robots!
• latent learning (learning without reinforcement)

latent learning (describe and example)

learning without reinforcement

• ex with maze: sudden introduction of food as a reward after training to find the solution of the task led to a way faster time to solve the maze
• once there was a reason to solve quickly

primacy of operant conditioning (skinner)

basically the law of effect

tinbergens 4 questions: levels of analysis

1. adaptation (function)
2. evolution (phylogeny)
3. development (in animals lifetime)
4. immediate causation (neural mechanisms)

What is Lehrman's main attack on "instinct" as a concept?

the idea of instinct ignores development and the antecedence of behavior -- how do these things develop?
also lack of experimental controls in the behavior

what is instinct? what is "innate"?

-present at birth
-not learned
-developed before used
-unchanged once developed
-species-typical
-adapted during evolution
-served by specific brain "modules"
-attributable to genes

define and examples of innate behaviors with critical developmental pathways

seemingly innate behaviors require interactions between genes and environment -- animals inherit regularities in environment
ex:) drinking in response to dehydration requires learning
ex:) babies latching onto nipples need intrinsic cues so that the baby learns! need the amniotic fluid on nipples

what are the 4 types of observation?

1. Whole behavior versus the criterion (binary) response
2. free expression versus constrained actions
3. short duration versus whole day
4. microscopic versus macroscopic analysis

describe whole behavior versus criterion (binary) response?

full behavior versus every 5 mins does animal do x?

free expression versus constrained actions?

basically classical ethology versus comparative psych

short duration versus the whole day

5 mins behavior or is it a long term behavior (i.e. pair bonding)

microscopic versus macroscopic analysis

micro is the biomechanics of a behavior (think muscular mation patterns)

what are the qualities of "good" behavioral tests?

-accuracy (compared to the standard)
-consistency (stable within the test)
-repeatability/reliability (stable across tests)
-replicability (stable across different labs)

describe the different types of validity

• face: purpose or category of behavior is clear or self evident
• construct: behaviors measured in two species (mouse v human) depend on the same underlying mechanism
• predictive: how well a behavior in a mouse model can predict a currently unknown aspect of diseases/states in humans or other species

ethogram

constructing a list of naturally-occurring behaviors

there are classes of behaviors that contain multiple individual behaviors as well

e.g. exploration behaviors include: walk

examples of behavioral tests for exploration

open field
nose poke hole board
y maze
novel object test

examples of behavioral tests for anxiety

light/dark box
elevated maze
vogel conflict test

examples of behavioral tests for motor behaviors

grip strength stain gauge
balance beam
grid test
rotarod
running wheel with uneven rings

examples of behavioral tests for learning and memory (appetitive)

operant chamber
tunnel maze
lashley 3 maze
t maze
barnes maze with escape holes
radial maze
morris water maze
4 arm water maze

examples of behavioral tests for learning and memory (aversive)

shuttle avoidance with shick grid
step down inhibitory avoidance shock grid
contextual fear conditioning
step up active avoidance

what are order effects? example?

the order in which you conduct different behavioral tests can affect the outcome of one or many tests

ex: open field test -- if tested once

what are different ways to order behavioral tests?

battery of tests
least to most stressful
balanced order of tests (4)
latin square
partially balanced order (5)

describe connectomics and the levels of analysis

the understanding of architecture of nervous system connectivity in all animals at all resolutions

• major: brain regions
• meso: local circuits
• nano: synaptic
• even smaller: signaling pathways

Cre-recombinase - LoxP system: basic arrangement?

cre-recombinase is an enzyme

using Cre-Lox for inducible knockouts

a "cre-driver" mouse and a "floxed" mouse will be crossed

• hemizygous cre heterosygouse "floxed" gene wherein cre is only expressed in cells where the gene is active
• homozygous "floxed" mouse for the gene of interest
• results in offspring having 2 copies of the floxed gene

using Cre-Lox for knock in models

a "cre-driver" mouse and a "reporter" mouse (usually GFP) will be crossed

• results in the stop codon to be excised between the loxP sites by Cre when the gene becomes activated

Cre-Lox FLEx ("flip-excision"). purpose and how it works

this tool will stop the flip that would typically occur by taking advantage of the mutated lox sites. a double floxed gene with two colors of reporters that face the opposite orientation

CRISPR-cas9 system

allows for the knockout (or insertion) of genes directly in the tissue

the enzyme (cas9) will cut out the specific parts of the DNA using a template "guide RNA" that will know where to cut based on the PAM sequences and sites chosen

DNA will region in nonhomologous end joining

RNA interference (RNAi)

knockdown of gene product directly in the tissue by targeting one of two things:

1. lock up translation machinery
2. block the RNA product itself

how do conditional vectors work (cre-dependent)? what are the different types?

can use as reporters

what can you do with viral vectors in terms of tracing?

anatomical tracing

what are the limitations of conventional tracers (non-viral vectors)?

• can be taken up by fibers of passage
• spread at the site of injection can lead to intense and diffuse labeling
• direction of axonal transport is rarely exclusive
• not specific for particular neurons

what are examples of viral tracers?

• static (AAV

how do trans-synaptic viral tracers work

such as the rabies virus?

what tools can be used to record neural activity

-ephys:
-optical imaging

examples of ephys

• extracellular recordings (placed near the cell to record voltage changes during AP)
• intracellular recordings (penetrates the cell to record intracellular Vm)
• whole cell patch recordings (intracell. with tight seal with membrane of the cell
• multi-electrode arrays
• EEG

examples of optical imaging

• GCaMP indicators
• other biosensors

imaging via:

• head fixed
• microendoscope
• fiber photometry

lesion manipulations are what kind of studies?

loss-of function

• demonstrates the necessity for the process or behavior
• can look at compensations
• disconnection approaches in the network
• can combine with other approaches
• can do experimental destruction or inhibition of a brain region

what are the different ways to do lesion manipulations?

• electrolytic

what are the different aspects to consider with pharmacological manipulations?

locations: intracerebroventricular

how do electrical manipulations work? whats the main limitation?

• bipolar stimulation: cathode and anode are at the same level and can be done under anesthesia or awake

limitation: the effects of the stimulation a complex amalgam of excitation and inhibition neurons

whats the major benefit of GCaMP over ephys?

• less invasive
• spatial resolution
• can combine with cre-lox system

what are the 3 main features of optogenetics?

1. genetic encoding of microbial opsins that directly elicit electrical current across membranes in response to light
2. targeting sufficiently strong and specific opsin expression to well-defined cell elements in the brain (usually through a cre-dependent viral vector)
3. methods of guiding sufficiently strong and precisely times light to specific brain regions

what are the 3 main types of opsins?

1. bacteriorhodopsins
2. halorhodopsins
3. channelrhodopsins

Bacteriorhodopsin

naturally occurring that pump protons out of the cell

halorhodopsins

pump chloride ions into the cell

channelrhodopsins

allows positively charged ions to flow through the opsin pore

what are the main limitations of bacteriorhodopsins and halorhodopsins

• terminal inhibition is quite difficult
• if you do this for a long time

what are the limitations of opsins as a whole?

1. effects of the fiber optic interface

what is the main benefit of optogenetics?

good for precise on and off in time domain

chemogenetics

brain excitation of inhibition by chemical actuators

what is the "actuator" in most chemogenetics?

CNO

how do DREADDs work?

allows for the reversible

what is the main benefit of chemogenetics?

great for chronic studies

what are the main limitations of using chemogenetics/DREADDs?

slow kinetics

what are the 3 requirements of chemogenetic receptors?

1. must not be receptor to endogenous ligands
2. minimal or no endogenous activity in absence of ligand binding
3. must have a high affinity for the ligand that has no pharmacological activity at OTHER endogenous receptors

explain the basis of DREADDs in terms of mechanism of action

• muscarinic receptors human M4 or human M3 that are modified to be insensitive to ACh and very sensitive to CNO
• can use Gq

what is the mechanism of KORD?

responsive to salvinorin-B -- activated K-opioid receptors and leads to decrease in cAMP via the Gi pathway

why do we need a concept for motivation?

1. explains variability of behavior over time to constant stimulus
2. explains short term stability in goal-seeking or avoidance behavior
3. explains why we react specifically to a specific emotionally-important stimulus

what are the main components of Rene Descartes' dualism?

the body is passive and the will is what provides motivation. animals are not passive -- there is an internal drive state because the same environment can have variations in behavior based on daily v monthly cycle

what are the main components of Jeremy Bentham's theory

• hedonic axiom: organisms direct their behavior to minimize aversive outcomes and maximize desirable outcomes
• hedonic continuum: events are ordered on a continuum

describe Charles Darwin's theories related to motivation

motivation is instinctual -- the beginnings of evolutionary and ecological ideas that motivation is:
-inherited
-unlearned
-needs specific stimuli

describe the main components of William James' functionalism

nature has endowed humans with inherited physical/mental instincts

what did Robert S Woodworth bring to motivation?

drive: behaviors have a driving mechanism and a steering mechanism

explain the concept of drive as an intervening variable

the concept of drive is needed to explain and predict non-homeostatic behavior. think of this as a "state". what context will this behavior occur?

drive is an objective quantity that is measured by its correlations with dependent (behavioral) variables

it is more parsimonious than postulating numerous stimulus-response relationships that occur during a specific state

this also avoids circularity. the drive concept allows to make new predictions

what are the two motivational phases?

1. appetitive
2. consummatory

what is the appetitive phase of motivation?

flexible approach behavior toward a goal -- to find and obtain the goal can use mahy operant approaches

what is the consummatory phase of motivation?

only when a goal is obtained

describe the process of homeostasis regarding internal need state

1. a stimulus produces a change in a variable
2. this change is detected by a receptor/sensor
3. input -- information is sent along an afferent pathway to the control center
4. output -- information is sent along efferent pathway to the effector
5. response of the effector feeds back to influence the magnitude of the stimulus and returns variable back to homeostasis

what is the homeostatic model of motivation? How is this true in some situations

but not so much in others?

how can homeostasis occur without a homeostatic mechanism? whats an example?

anticipatory behavior
ex: most eating and drinking occur before actual change in osmolarity or glucose -- this is activated by predictive cues (classical conditioning)

what is illusionary homeostasis? describe some aspects of this idea and a "settling" point

• hunger and eating do not have homeostatic mechanisms

describe some aspects of drive

• energy source from the sum of all needs
• increases with duration and intensity of deprivation
• energizes/drives many behaviors

describe what a habit is

learned director of drive and occurs because of reinforcement --> directors

what is drive reduction theory?

any response that REDUCES drive is reinforced (rewarding) and animals learn which response reduced drive

• this can predict motivation before it occurred by modeling (equations) of environment antecedents

what are some of the problems with drive reduction theory? describe with examples

1. IV food (which should reduce drive) was found to be incapable of supporting reinforcement

describe opponent-process in motivation related to affective dynamics

there is an interplay of positive and negative hedonic states. strongly driving one will engage the other in equilibrium

what is a hedonic state?

an emotional state

what are the minimum criterion for an "interesting motivation"? philip teitelbaum

1. must be willing to do something arbitrary (i.e. operant lever pressing) to get the reward or reach a goal -- something not species typical
2. learned component representing consequences of the organism's history with goal object
3. not reflex nor instinct.
4. there is an emphasis on flexible behavior and solutions
5. focused on appetitive aspects of motivation

how are purpose and expectation incorporated into motivation by Alan Epstein

purposive act is one that is directed to a goal and has the corresponding internal state to obtain the object of the goal

what is flexible goal directedness

the behavior can change appropriately when circumstances necessitate new strategies to get the goal

what is goal expectation and why is it important for motivation?

need a representation of the reward value in order to enhance motivation

what is motivation always accompanied by?

behavioral

give an example of animals having changeable expectancies/reward value

animals are given either 1

why are learned incentives important for motivation?

having an internal representation of the outcome of a behavior is sufficient to drive motivation

what is hedonic value?

the state for which an organism strives (positive) or avoids (negative)

alliesthesia? whats an example?

a hedonic shift in response to incentive when the internal state of the organism changes

ex) when the internal state is neutral