Crisis of identity, 1920–1945

need to finish

**What were the politics of 1920s America?**

* It signalled a return to a pro-business government, almost a return to the laissez-faire economic policy of the ==Gilded Age== of the late 19th century
* As Calvin ==Coolidge== once said, “the chief business of the American people is business”. This became the dominant attitude
* Coolidge was ==fiscally conservative==, reducing the budget deficit after he left office + socially progressive


* The Presidents surrounded themselves with people who shared their pro-business agenda e.g. Andrew Mellon
* It was ==corrupt==- secretary of the Interior Albert Fall was involved in a scam that became known as the ==Teapot Dome scandal==, he was convicted of ==accepting bribes from the oil companies==; sentenced to a year in prison. This was the first time that a cabinet official had received such a sentence
* Hoover campaigned on Coolidge’s legacy of economic prosperity, pledging to support business, improve the quality of life of the nation’s farmers, and conduct a relatively isolationist foreign policy

**What caused the Great Depression?**

* It is too simplistic to view the ==stock market crash== as the single cause of the Great Depression. An efficient economy can recover from such a contraction
* Long term underlying causes include ==credit== - Middle class Americans had already stretched their ==debt== capacities by purchasing automobiles and household appliances on instalment plans, structural weaknesses
* Wealth concentrated in the hands of a few limits economic growth

**What were the consequences of the Great Depression?**

* There was very little social upheaval against the Federal Government in the history of America however, intense hunger had a way of stirring action
* The ==Bonus Army march of 1932== drew the most national attention as war veterans demanded their rightful money now rather than in 1945. It was the largest march on Washington up to that point in history and it even included vulnerable families with children
* Many Americans were outraged of this disrespect to veterans of the Great war. Hoover could not have recovered from this public rage
* Crime rates, malnutrition, drinking, smoking, prostitution, suicide all rose

**Why was the Great Depression important?**

* It created an environment where the ==Federal government accepted responsibility== for curing a wide array of society's issues that were previously left to individuals, states, and local governments
* They increased government bureaucracy – Alphabet agencies
* The ==relationship== between the government and the people was ==redefined==

**What were Hoover’s actions towards the Great depression?**

Running under the slogan of ==‘rugged individualism’== made it difficult to promote massive government intervention in the economy

* As a result of pressure, he passed the ==largest tariff act in 1930==. The amount of protection of domestic industry did not offset the losses brought by a decrease in foreign trade. Also, it initiated a trade war between the US and Europe, thereby exacerbating the global economic downturn
* Believing in a ==balanced budget==, Hoover's 1931 economic plan cut federal spending and increased taxes, both of which inhibited individual efforts to spur the economy
* He didn’t give federal aid to ==individuals==. Hoover believed that government aid would create ==dependency== where individual effort was needed. Past governments never resorted to such schemes and the economy managed to rebound. Clearly Hoover and his advisors failed to grasp the scope of the Great Depression
* However, Hoover did have the distinction of stepping into the White House at the height of one of the longest periods of growth in American history, so he was ==unlucky==

**What was the public reaction to the New deals?**

* Critics complained about the ==huge costs== and ==rising national debt== as a result of spoon- feeding Americans- using invisible dollars
* Liberals and radicals attacked from the left for not providing enough relief and for maintaining the fundamental aspects of ==capitalism==
* Conservatives claimed his policies were ==socialism in disguise==, and that an interfering activist government was destroying a proud history of self-reliance
* ==Coughlin==, a radio priest turned against Roosevelt when he refused to ==nationalise== the banking system and provide for the ==free coinage of silver==
* In 1934, a movement called ==‘share our wealth’== was started by ==Huey Long== of Lousiaina. He proposed a ==100% tax on personal fortune==s exceeding a million dollars

**What were implications of the New deals?**

* FDR proposed ==‘a new deal for the American people’==
* They were a ==bold, ambitious and practical/pragmatic experiment==, not a blueprint for action
* ==Radio’s golden era== coincided with Roosevelt’s presidency. Radio shows entertainment advertised, and made an escape for American audiences. Roosevelt wisely used his weekly =="Fireside Chats"== to keep in touch with the public and promote his New Deals. His mastery of the radio paved the way for the ==media-driven 20th-century Presidency==
* They sparked a ==revolution== in American public thought regarding the relationship between the people and the federal government/ expanded the size and scope of the federal government considerably, and in doing so fundamentally reshaped American political culture around *the principle that the government is responsible for the welfare of its citizens*
* FDR was ==quick== to act unlike Hoover, within two days he declared a ==banking holiday==. After it ended, deposits exceeded withdrawals and Americans were thus more ==confident== in the American banking system. Although radical in speed and scope, Roosevelt's banking plan strengthened the current system, without fundamentally altering it by nationalising
* ==Tenant farmers== and ==sharecroppers== did not receive government aid; the subsidy went to the landlord. The owners often bought better ==machinery== with the money, which further reduced the need for farm labour. The Great Depression and the AAA brought a virtual __end to the practice of sharecropping in America__
* They changed the management of the economy and increased ==civil liberties== e.g. the NRA outlawed child labour, set maximum hours, and required a minimum wage. The greatest victory for labour unions was the guarantee of the right to ==collective bargaining==, which led to a dramatic upsurge in union membership
* Unfortunately, the NRA did little to improve the economy. The increase in prices actually caused a slight slowdown in the recovery. Workers complained that participating industries found loopholes to violate minimum wage and child labour obligations

**What was the signifcance of the TVA 1933?**

* It modernised one of the nation’s most impoverished regions. Low energy rates would help to ensure affordable, reliable power for all. The act encouraged economic development and provided jobs by bringing electricity to rural areas for the first time
* Power companies opposed it, seeing it as a threat to private enterprise + cartoonists criticised it for taking on the characteristics of socialism + some communities were displaced by TVA projects. For instance, roughly l,500 families in eastern Tennessee lost their homes when the Norris Dam was built and the federal government offered little help in resettling displaced families

**What was the signifcance of the WPA 1935?**

* While ==inequalities== existed under the programs, many women, blacks and other minorities found employment. The WPA employed approximately ==350,000== African Americans, about 15% of its total workforce + ==the Federal Music and Theatre projects== also supported black musicians and actors
* It made significant contributions to the preservation of ==African American culture== and history with the ==Federal Writers’ Project==. The program collected interviews, articles and notes on African American life in the South
* It put ==women== to work in clerical jobs, gardening, canning and as librarians and seamstresses. They made up about 7% of the workforce

**What was the focus of the Second New Deals?**

* It relied more heavily on the ==Keynesian== style of deficit spending than the First New Deal did. FDR altered his policy making in part because of complaints from critics and in part because, by 1935, it was clear that more Americans still needed federal relief assistance
* FDR thus aimed approximately half the Second New Deal programs and policies at ==long-term reform==/ increasing worker protections and building long-lasting financial ==security== for Americans
* Critics feared that the policy and programs involved were a dangerous step toward ==socialism==


* 1935, the WPA was an effort to appease the ==“Longites”== who clamoured for more direct

assistance from the federal government. The WPA was similar to the Public Works Administration of the first New Deal, this time hiring nearly ==10 million== Americans to construct new public buildings, roads and bridges
* The ==Social Security Act of 1935== was revolutionary as it outlined pension plans, child benefits, job training. Never before did Americans have a ==safety net== and a sense of financial security. Although not perfect it did set a groundwork for change. For the first time, the Federal government accepted ==permanent responsibility== for assisting people in need
* Native Americans also received federal assistance during Roosevelt’s second term. Congress passed the ==Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) 1934== to promote tribal organization + give federal recognition to tribal governments
* The IRA also reversed the ==1887 Dawes Severalty Act==, changing the relationship between various tribes and the federal government. The Dawes Act had weakened tribal affiliations because it stated that only individual Native Americans not tribal ==councils== could own land
* Many tribes saw more immediate benefit from relief programs such as the CCC, PWA, and WPA, in which nearly ==100,000== young Native American men participated
* *It was only partially successful. Some tribes had difficulty understanding the terms of the new treaty*

An important feature of the Second new deals were how they ==developed the== p==olitical and economic power of people==, groups and regions in order to produce a more socially and ==geographically balanced recovery== e.g. the ==1935 Wagner Act== facilitated the formation of trade unions and gave them more collective bargaining power and to strike, ==By 1937, General Motors== had recognised its workers’ right to organise + ==Rural electrification== programme that focused on the South and West

**How efective was the New Deal at addressing the problems of the Great Depression?**

* ==Legacy== = helped people survive the Depression + created a number of long-standing government institutions
* It had a demonstrably positive impact in ==halting== the destructive cycle of the early Depression years and ==promoted recovery==
* FDR responded with a bold program of experimentation that arguably saved the ==capitalist system== and perhaps the American democracy. His objectives still fundamentally preserved the ==free-market economy==
* The New Deal itself created millions of jobs and sponsored ==public works== projects that reached most every county in the nation e.g. highways, schools, airports, bridges
* They introduced measures to ==shelter== the American people from future downturns e.g. ==Federal protection== of bank deposits ended the dangerous trend of bank runs
* Abuse of the stock market was more clearly defined and monitored to prevent collapses in the future
* The ==Social Security system== was modified and expanded to remain one of the most popular government programs for the remainder of the century
* They helped America pull through the ==dark times==
* However ==comprehensive== the New Deal seemed, it ==failed== to achieve its main goal of ending the Depression. In 1939, the unemployment rate was still 19 percent, and not until ==1943== did it reach its pre-Depression levels
* People felt the impact of the New Deal in ==distinct== ways e.g. because Roosevelt was a democrat who relied heavily on the South for support- ==African Americans== did not benefit to such an extent e.g. they were the first to be fired + New Deals relied heavily on state and local agencies to put them to practise. The New Deals essentially had a ==discriminatory bias== in favour of providing work and welfare for the white male
* It did not restore the United States to full ==economic health== \n

**What was the signifcance over the confict of ideas over the role of the Federal government?**

* The country was experiencing an ==unprecedented level of intervention/ federal exercise of power== so there was bound to be opposition
* Hence the Supreme court finally declared the ==NRA Unconstituional== in 1936 + the ==AAA==
* Conservative Democrats and Republicans charged FDR with ==abuse of power/trying to control the Supreme Court== control the Supreme Court and failed to support his plans of ==court packing.== During the 1938 Congressional elections FDR campaigned against anti-New Deal Democrats. In nearly every case, the conservatives won. The coalition of Southern democrats and Republicans dominated the Congress until the 1960s and efectively ended the reform spirit of the New Deal
* FDR shocked supporters with his attempt at misusing his executive powers. The president’s blatant disregard for the ==separation of powers== stunned even the American people. FDR repeatedly denied charges + defended his belief that aging justices were incapable of performing their duties
* ==Backfiring== of court packing scheme marked the beginning of the ==end== of the New Deal + Roosevelt Recession 1937 = Democrats lost a significant number of seats in the House and Senate in the 1938 congressional elections. This return of Republican power efectively killed the New Deal

**Why was there a 1920s economic boom?**

* WWI
* Republican Policies
* New forms of financing eg ‘buying on credit’, buying noe pay later, instalment plans e.g more than 1/2 of the automobiles were brought on credit
* Hire purchase
* Consumer debt more than doubled between 1920 and 1930
* the abundance of natural resources
* rising wages - unprecedented
* new selling methods/advertising fuelled consumer demand e.g radio became very important in communicating a business message and led to the emergence of a national mass entertainment culture
* new methods of production i.e mass production with the assembly line for Ford cars

**What symbolised the 1920s economic boom?**

* The prosperity of the 1920s led to ==new patterns of consumption==, or purchasing consumer goods like radios, cars, vacuums, beauty products or clothing
* ==Advertising== became a central institution in this new consumer economy e.g. magazines like ==Ladies’ Home Journa==l and The Saturday Evening Post became vehicles to connect advertisers with middle-class consumers
* Access to ==electricity== became more common

**What was the signifcance of Ford’s automobile?**

*  The automobile changed the face of America, both economically and socially. The ==oil industry== in California, Oklahoma, and Texas expanded as Americans’ reliance on oil increased
* Ford shaped the nation’s mode of industrialism to rely on paying decent wages so that workers could ==afford== to be the consumers of their own products
* Feeding into the mass consumer element of the 1920s, the automobile helped develop the idea of worshipping ==materialism==. The growth of the automobile allowed individuals another avenue to display wealth and cherish it. In addition to this, it helped substantiate the feeling of ==freedom== and ==independence==. The automobile became one of those elements that "people had to have" and, in the process, helped to spawn more of a desire for wealth as it was seen as a symbol of status and prestige
* It had an impact on advertising as well. In order to become a "must have" item, manufacturers had to convince Americans that they couldn't live without a car. Once the vehicle was purchased, a whole ==new market== was created; gas stations, garages, billboards (more advertising)
* Also, cars in conjunction with radio and movies began the process of ==homogenising America==. We began to lose a bit of our regional diferences/ethnic diversity during this time period. (More prominent during the 40s/50s, but the change began in the 1920)

**What was the signifcance of America’s** ==**Bull market?**==

*  Stockholders became millionaires overnight as ==the values of shares tripled==
* Signified the ==overconfidence in speculation== who were certain the price of shares would rise when they took the ==risk== of ==‘buying on the margin’==
* When it crashed banks that lent money to futures traders to buy stock on margin found that many of those loans would go unpaid. Consequently, a rash of ==bank failures== swept the nation. This had a ==ripple effect== on the majority of Americans

**What was the signifcance of structural weaknesses in the economy?**

* Banks operated without ==guarantees== to their customers, creating a climate of ==panic== when times got tough. ==Few regulations== were placed on banks and they lent money to those who ==speculated recklessly== in stocks.
* Agricultural prices had already been low during the 1920s, leaving farmers unable to spark any sort of recovery
* When the Depression spread across the Atlantic, ==Europeans== bought fewer American products, worsening the slide
* ==Hoover’s minimalist approach== to government intervention made little impact
* ==Middle-class Americans== stood in the ==same soup== and ==bread lines== previously only occupied by the ==poor==
* The Great Depression for the American farmer really began after WW1. Much of the ==Roaring '20s== was a continual cycle of ==debt== for the American farmer, stemming from falling farm prices and the need to purchase expensive machinery

**What social and cultural impact did WW1 have on America?**

* The purpose and aims of the war seemed distant and unclear. Technological advances in armaments made WW1 the deadliest conflict in human history, claiming millions of casualties on all sides
* The very nature of the war called into question the West’s perception of itself as “civilised.” Many began to ==question the values and assumptions of Western civilisation==
* The unprecedented bloodshed and destruction of the war stripped this generation of their illusions about democracy, peace, and prosperity. This led to the creation of the ==Lost Generation== who refer to the generation of writers, artists, musicians, and ==intellectuals== that came of age during the WW1 and the Roaring Twenties e.g. John Steinbeck
* The achievement of material affluence became a goal for many US citizens + an object of satire and ridicule for the writers and intellectuals of the ==Lost Generation==


* The anti-Communist ==“Red Scare”== in 1919-1920 encouraged a widespread nativist, or

anti-immigrant, hysteria. This led to the passage of an extremely restrictive immigration law, the ==National Origins Act of 1924==, which set immigration quotas that excluded some people (Eastern Europeans and Asians) in favour of others (Northern Europeans and people from Great Britain)
* The resurgence of the ==KKK== can be portrayed as a protector of traditional values
* The war was memorialised in America as if fought exclusively by white people

**How did WW1 change the position of women?**

* Many ==taboos== and restrictions thrown up to keep women out of large-scale productions industry were broken down. Women worked as streetcar conductors, radio operators, and in steel mills
* They also replaced men as police officers, mechanics, train conductors and even barbers
* They worked long hours in factories making guns and ammunition, some worked in government jobs as clerks and managers. Women learned many new skills
* WW1 also marked an important “==first==” for American women. For the first time in the nation’s history, women were permitted to join the armed forces/enlist in the navy. Although, this was only clerical work such as telephone operators
* Women were previously in secretarial positions, domestic jobs and lower paying industrial positions
* However, the ==extent== to which these new opportunities survived the war is debated, and it’s now generally believed that the war didn’t have a huge lasting efect on women’s employment


* It undoubtedly proved to many people that women could do a much wider range of work than previously believed + opened up industries to much greater female employment. This did carry on to some extent after the war, but many women found an enforced return to ==pre-wartime jobs/domestic life==. Many women were on contracts which lasted only for the length of the war, finding themselves out of work once the men returned.

**What were the social and cultural changes in the 20s?**

* For the first time, more Americans lived in cities than on farms. The nation’s total wealth more than doubled between 1920 and 1929
* Housework was ==revolutionised==, vacuum cleaners displaced the carpet beater. Electric refrigerators, washing machines, and irons saved hours of extra work. New methods of canning and freezing made store-bought food cheap and efective enough to eliminate chores
* ==Traditional Victorian values== were eroding, ==morality== was slipping away in pursuit of ==materialism==. Immigrants brought new cultures, religions, languages
* Phonograph technology + Radio = ==Jazz Age==, a transformation of the entertainment industry
* Popular culture was introduced with commercial radio starting in 1920 + motion pictures became an entertainment industry whereby “Going to the movies” became a social occasion, it turned into an even greater phenomenon with the release of The ==Jazz Singer in 1927==, the first “talking” motion picture

**What was the signifcance of American consumerism in the 1920s?**

* Consumerism is the theory that it is economically attractive to encourage the attainment of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts


* Technology had advanced and the nation had entered the age of steel and electricity. Industries switched from coal power to ==electricity== and most homes, especially in the towns and cities, were lit and powered by electricity
* Personal ==grooming== items such as cosmetics, hair dye, mouthwash, deodorants, tissues, and perfumes were added to the ever-growing list of consumer products
* Magazines and newspapers picked up on the ==culture== of consumerism and ==advertisers== reached millions of people through advertising

**What was the signifcance of the Jazz Age**

* Name of an era referred to in conjunction with the Roaring 20s
* The emergence of ==Jazz clubs== led to the ==“flapper girl”== which became a staple of US pop

culture. These women fouted orthodox gender norms, bobbing their hair, smoking

cigarettes, and engaging in other behaviours traditionally associated with men
* The ==Harlem Renaissance== was a fourishing of African American art, music, literature,

and poetry, centred in NYC’s Harlem neighbourhood

**Why did society and culture change?**

* The most logical explanation is that ==technological== and economic changes brought this about. Women’s lives were made easier by technologies that saved them work time and gave them more leisure time. Leisure opportunities because of inventions like movies and cars were more available + the booming economy meant that more people had extra money to spend on entertainment

**To what extent did the position of Women change?**

* The position of women changed to some degree in the 1920s with women becoming more likely to be part of the ==public world==. Women were coming to be more likely to do things like getting jobs and to engage in ==politics==. They were also more likely to do things like smoking, drinking, and wearing what would have been seen as daring clothes in public so the old restrictions on dress and behaviour were being overthrown
* All of this had many roots. It was partly based in the ==Progressive Era== of the early 1900s. The reforms of this era had given women the vote, thus putting them in the ==political sphere==
* The most important change was political. Many women believed that it was their right and duty to take part in politics. They recognised that political decisions afected their daily lives
* By the end of the decade, women were represented on local, state, and national political committees and were infuencing the political agenda of the federal government


* ==Economic changes== during the early 1900s had also opened up a large number of new professions to women. Public acceptance of wage-earning jobs for young unmarried women was growing. No longer being limited to work as “mill girls” or domestics, these women began to perform clerical work in offices and retail work in shops and department stores. This did give women the ==opportunity== to work outside the house and some money to use to have fun.
* There were those opportunities for fun because ==labour-saving devices== had made it easier to do the housework and that left times for things like riding in cars and going to movies, both of which were new things at the time
* Cigarettes were advertised to women as a sign of modern sophistication, and the 1920s ==“flapper”== is usually pictured with a cigarette in her hand
* The new woman’s mystique was exemplified by the Great Gatsby (1925)
* Many women celebrated the age of the flapper as a ==female declaration of independence==. Experimentation with new looks, jobs, and lifestyles seemed liberating compared with the socially silenced woman in the Victorian Age


* However, some women didn’t want the vote. There was a widespread attitude that men and female had ==“separate spheres”.== Women should concern themselves with home, children, and religion, while men should take care of business and politics
* Older women created ‘Anti-Flirt’ clubs to act against the flapper movement, encouraging young women to be more conservative.
* With regards to education, more women were attending schools and college however the professions they reached tended to be teachers and nurses (occupations traditionally identified by women)
* A flapper was not an entirely true ==representation== of all the 1920s woman. In order to be a fapper, a woman had to have enough money and free time to play the part
* The sharp increase in the number of women in the labour force during WW1 ended abruptly
* There were still parts of the country where women could not hold public office

**What was the signifcance of the Harlem renaissance?**

* In 1915 and 1916, natural disasters in the south put black workers and sharecroppers out of work. During and after WW1 immigration to the US fell, and northern recruiters headed south to entice black workers to their companies
* Increased contact between African Americans and white Americans in the workplace and on city streets forced a ==new awareness== of the disparity between the constitutional principle of equality and the reality of segregation and inequality
* It marked the ==birth of African American culture/ literary movement== + their common experience in their past and their uncertain present circumstances gave rise to a strong ==sense of racial pride==, and encouraged an assertive social activism
* The continuing hardships faced by African Americans in the Deep South and the urban North were severe. It took the environment of the new ==American city== to bring in close proximity some of the greatest minds of the day
* For the ==first time==, there were black artists who explored themes such as legacy, racism, oppression, alienation, rage, hope and pride through the creation of novels, essays, plays and poetry


* In its 20 year span from 1917 to 19l7, Harlem Renaissance writers created an authentic voice for African-Americans that showed their humanity and desire for equality = ==creative exploration of the black experience==
*   No aspect of the Harlem Renaissance shaped America as much as jazz, Southern black musicians brought it north to the cities, and thousands, black and white, focked to Harlem venues such as the Cotton Club to see Louis Armstrong
* It signalled a significant ==change in black identity==. Previously seen as rural, ignorant, and able only to be plantation labourers, it understood black people as urbane, educated, literate, assertive = the proud, creative product of the American city. In short, it changed the perception of the African American from someone considered inferior to someone to be admired and respected

**Why did the US introduce prohibition?**

* The key to understanding the strength of the ==Temperance movement== was the sheer awfulness of saloons. It was no coincidence that the organisation that coordinated the assault on alcohol was called the ==Anti-Saloon League 1893==. Saloons were synonymous with drunkenness, gambling, prostitution, drugs and political corruption – politicians used them as places to in efect buy votes by offering jobs
* Loathing of saloon culture was part of a generalised fear of ==social disintegration==
* The League, and other organisations that supported prohibition such as the ==Woman’s Christian Temperance Union==, soon began to succeed in enacting local prohibition laws.
* Eventually the prohibition campaign was a national effort
* It is common to understate the ==power== of the temperance movement in the US, building on a century of campaigning against drink and its antisocial effects; the strength of feeling in individual ==states==, some of which had already declared themselves “==dry==”
* Saloons proliferated. Hard-pressed to earn ==profits==, saloonkeepers sometimes introduced vices such as gambling and prostitution into their establishments
* The US was rapidly ==industrialising== and ==urbanising==; immigration was creating ghettoes in US cities + labour militancy was increasing, as were African-American protests; socialist and anarchist agitation fanned the fames of urban discontent and made rural, ==Protestant== America fear for its country and its moral values
* Alcohol was seen as a force in families and marriages


* Alcohol fuelled and disorder- pub brawls + propaganda = popularity of

prohibition

**Why did prohibition fail?**

* Some prohibition leaders looked forward to an ==educational== campaign that would lead to a sober nation. Other prohibition leaders looked forward to ==vigorous== enforcement of prohibition in order to eliminate supplies of beverage alcohol
* After 1920, neither group of leaders was especially successful. The educators never received the support for the campaign that they dreamed about; and the law enforcers were never able to persuade government officials to mount a wholehearted enforcement campaign against illegal suppliers of beverage alcohol


* The increase of the illegal production and sale of liquor (known as “==bootlegging==”) + the proliferation of ==speakeasies== (illegal drinking spots) + the accompanying rise in gang violence and other crimes led to waning support for Prohibition by the end of the 1920
* With the country mired in the ==Great Depression by 1932,== creating jobs and revenue by legalising the liquor industry had an undeniable appeal
* It was ==impractical==
* When people started dying in intergang rivalry, most notably in the ==St Valentine’s Day Massacre of 1929== - the public began to feel that the power of the gangsters was out of control


* There was no ==national== will to stop the act of drinking itself

**What was the signifcance of prohibition?**

* The battle over prohibition was in many respects a ==fight== between two Americas – old and new, rural and urban, Protestant and Catholic, rich and poor, established and immigrant/ it encapsulates a ==clash== between two visions of America
* To many middle-class white Americans, Prohibition was a way to assert some control over the unruly immigrant masses who crowded the nation’s cities. Drinking was a symbol of all they disliked about the modern city, and eliminating alcohol turn back the clock to an earlier and more comfortable time
* Prohibition was the ==culmination== of decades of protest and lobbying + destructive drinking has always occurred at times of massive social upheaval, when populations face the stressful shattering of their lifestyles and the uncertainty of new economic and societal realities
* By any true measure, Prohibition can only be regarded as a ==failure==. But it has had lasting repercussions. ==Anti-alcohol sentiment== still runs very high in American society

**What was the social impact of the Great Depression?**

* Optimism to despair, debt, suicide, fear, uncertainty, insecurity, depression, stress, overcrowding, homelessness, squalid living conditions, deprivation
* Shanty towns, make shift shacks = ==hoovervills==
* ==Hobos== riding the rails, breadlines, soup kitchens financed by charities and wealthy individuals


* A devastating drought hit the nation in 19l2 and the prairie states witnessed great dust

storms and the creation of the =='Dust Bowl'==. 100 million acres of farming land was destroyed, l million farmers were adversely efected due to unemployment and many families became homeless. This led to a mass migration away from the Great Plains to California and Arizona, a pragmatic way to stay alive
* ==Class divisions== increased, the stark contrasts between neighbourhoods fostered additional resentment and increased discontent
* ==Racial discrimination== increased during the era towards African Americans and immigrants. African Americans and immigrants were the first to be laid of. The district of ==Harlem== had an unemployment rate of 50%, double that of white Americans. Intensified racial discrimination created resentment and distrust and increasing feelings of inequality as people were treated as undervalued members of society

**What evidence is there that highlights the polarisation of American society?**

* The ==Butler Act of 1925== was a Tennessee law that prohibited the teaching of evolution in school. John Scopes, a science teacher broke this law and brought to court. This led to two famous people to become associated with his case – the ‘Monkey trial’. On one side was William Jennings Bryan who was a dry + religious fundamentalist + populist and on the other side, the defender of John Scopes was Clarence Darrow who was wet + liberal + atheist. John Scopes was not sentenced for this crime
* The significance of this is that it demonstrates the divide between the Conservative Americans and the more progressive and liberal Americans. Bryan was seen as backward, out of touch and misguided
* The other divisions include between anti-prohibition and pro-prohibition
* It was a very popular trial creating national attention, thus strengthening the efect of the divisions
* The trial became the first ever to be broadcast on ==radio==
* The more so short revival of the ==KKK== demonstrate the societal reactions to social and

regional divisions. Still predominantly popular in the South shows their resentment to the lack of improvement in terms of the shattered economy in the South. What they had in this time period that they didn’t have before was a stronger character – David Stephenson and a ==female== face Elizabeth Tyler + advertising to reach a wider audience and promote themselves. However, their decline from 1925 due to rape emphasise other social issues
* The intolerance of the decade is embodied in ==the murder trial of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.== These two anarchists were arrested in 1920 for two murders. From the start, it was clear their trial was not about the murders, but about their backgrounds and beliefs

**Evaluate the position of African Americans**

* The environment of ==intolerance== and a new KKK prompted a drastic response by Marcus Garvey who believed that equality for African Americans could never be achieved in the US. He formed the United Negro Movement Association to promote economic cooperation among black businesses
* He made fiery speeches and created uniforms and fags to symbolise a new black pride. The ultimate goal for blacks across the world should be to return to the "Motherland." Only in Africa could a strong nation dedicated to promotion of black culture fourish. He amassed about
* ==Executive order 8802-1941== = it did not establish full employment equality (because segregation persisted) but it did establish a ==Fair Employment Practices Committee== which was solely an investigative and advisory committee that lacked enforcement powers. It did, however, symbolise at least some commitment to non-discrimination and set a precedent for the post-war civil rights achievements that occurred during the administration of Harry Truman
* It was an achievement because of the ==Brotherhood of sleeping car porters== who campaigned to get equal employment opportunities
* It was not a law just an action 1first because FDR was also following a political strategy of appeasing ==southern Democrats==, who were extremely powerful in Congress and opposed federal programs aimed at uplifting African Americans
* Although, employment in the defence industry did rise from l% to 8%
* ==The BSCP 1925== = white supremacy remained entrenched in most every institution that existed in the US, and these racist beliefs, both subtle and overt, precluded the white labour movement from recognising the black workers, so they had to form their own since they were excluded from ==AFL affiliates==. Although, they were employed by the Pullman Company + helped facilitate the rise of protest politics in black America


* ==Failure of the anti-lynching law in 1921== = accepted by Warren Harding + passed through House of Representatives but was prevented from coming to a vote by the powerful white southern Democratic bloc, on the grounds that blacks were the most responsible for crime

**What was the signifcance of the rise of the KKK?**

* The ==second era== of the KKK promoted the ideology of 'Americanism'
* They were Protestant ==fundamentalists==
* Provided an outlet for the militant patriotism of white Americans
* Old immigrants vs new immigrants
* Its members disproportionately middle class, and many of its very visible public activities geared toward festivities, pageants, and social gatherings = ==organised==
* ==Ideologically,== the Klan blended xenophobia, religious prejudice, and white supremacy together with a broadly conservative ==moralism==. Amidst a global recession that came in the aftermath of WW1, fear and anxiety were widespread among native-born white Protestant

**To what extent was the USA isolationist?**

* ==Trade== had normally dominated international relations
* ==Polls== showed an unwillingness to become diplomatically involved in international

disputes
* Japan who provoked the US into war, by attacking their own forces. The US was the

only nation standing against Japanese domination of the entire pacific rim
* A strong sense of ==pan Americanism== swept the diplomatic circles. In the face of overseas adversity, strong hemispheric solidarity was attractive. To foster better relations with the nations to the south, Roosevelt declared a bold new ==Good Neighbour Policy.== Marines stationed in Central America and the Caribbean were withdrawn


* Isolationists in Congress felt reasonably confident that the measures of neutrality would keep the US out of another war
* It ==depended== on the time period e.g. when Japan invaded Manchuria in 19l1, the USA did nothing because they were in the midst of the Great Depression
* FDR was an ==internationalist== not an isolationist

**Why did the USA join WW2?**

*  German military successes prompted nationwide American rethinking about its posture toward the war. If Germany established ==hegemony== in Europe and Africa, and Japan swept East Asia, many believed that the Western Hemisphere might be next
* The isolationist point of view did not completely disappear from American ==discourse==, but never again did it figure prominently in American policies and afairs
* Americans were certainly not neutral in their sympathies
* ==Japan’s== plans for expansion in the Far East led it to attack Pearl Harbour in December

1941, bringing the US into WW2

**Why did isolationism end?**

* If the Japanese military could successfully attack ==Hawaii== and infict damage on the naval feet and casualties among innocent civilians, many people wondered what was to prevent a similar assault on the US mainland, particularly along the Pacific coast

**What was the significance of the** ==**Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928**==

Isolationist:

* Its legacy remains as a statement of the idealism expressed by advocates for peace in the interwar period
* Elements of the pact formed the basis of ==isolationist policy== in America because it renounced/outlawed war so that the USA would not be drawn into it
* It was in its origins, simply a way of gracefully ==denying== France the security guarantees it had sought to obtain
* A diplomatic achievement that committed the US to no action if France was in need of defence
* It was strongly supported by isolationists

**What was the signifcance of the** ==**Good neighbour policy 1933?**==

Isolationist:

* US relations with Latin America were at an all time low
* The retreat of military intervention in Latin America to exercise infuence in the region. This ==reversed== a decade long trend
* “No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external afairs of another”
* It represented an attempt to distance the US from earlier interventionist policies
* It shifted the former aggressive policy to a more economic and diplomatic relationship on ==gentler== terms
* FDR had 2 reasons for this: considering it was in the Great depression he saw reciprocal trading as ==economically beneficial==. US exports to Latin America indeed doubled by

**What was the signifcance of the** ==**Neutrality Acts 1939?**==

Isolationist:

* The period of isolationist sentiment was gone because of the rising threat to democracy in Western Europe
* Notions of strict neutrality changed quickly once WW2 actually began. Munitions were allowed to be sold to nations under siege by Nazi Germany
* FDR’s primary goal was to make it easier for the US to supply arms to democratic Britain and France

**What was the signifcance of the** ==**Ludlow Amendment 1938?**==

Isolationist:

* Introduced several times to the House of Representatives
* The fact that they entertained this resolution was significant because they would not have 20 years earlier
* FDR opposed it because it would limit the powers of his presidency
* It gained a lot of traction
* It was first suggested in 1914 and highlights isolationist sentiment because it was supported by ==William J Bryan== who was a renowned member

**What was the signifcance of the** ==**Dawes Plan 1924?**==

Interventionist:

* A significant instance of US reengagement with European afairs

**What was the signifcance of the** ==**Washington naval conference 1921?**==

* They tried to remain neutral doing “all in its power to encourage peaceful settlements”
* Senator William E. Borah led a congressional efort to demand that the US engage its two principal competitors in the naval arms race, Japan + UK (+ France + Italy) in negotiations for disarmament → 5 power treaty
* The 9 power Treaty marked the internationalisation of the ==Open Door Policy== in China
* To some extent it was isolationist because it was an efort to prevent another war so that the US would not be drawn into it

**What was the signifcance of the Neutrality Acts of 1939?**

* The period of isolationist sentiment was gone because of the rising threat to democracy in Western Europe
* Notions of strict neutrality changed quickly once WW2 actually began. Munitions were allowed to be sold to nations under siege by Nazi Germany
* FDR’s primary goal was to make it easier for the US to supply arms to democratic Britain and France

**What was the signifcance of the Neutrality Acts 1935-37?**

* They were in pursuit of an isolationist policy fearing another European war
*   It would restrict Americans from sailing on ships from hostile nations + would impose an embargo on the sale of arms to “belligerent” nations + sale of munition exports
*   However, it was a mere intention to stay out of war, the US could amend its neutral stance and it was thus fexible + FDR actually opposed it but there was strong congressional and public support
*   The second one was very restrictive, forbidding Americans from traveling on ships of any warring nation
*   FDR had engineered the inclusion of non-arms exports as a deliberate way to assist Great Britain and France in war against the Axis Powers = cash & carry cause
*   Overall, the Neutrality Acts represented a compromise whereby the US Government accommodated the isolationist sentiment of the American public, but still retained some ability to interact with the world

**What was the signifcance of the Lend – Lease Act 1941?**

* The principal means for providing US military aid to foreign nations
* Congress appropriated money to “the government of any country whose defence the President deems vital to the ==defence== of the United States.”
* The act permitted the US to support its war interests without being overextended in battle
* *Isolationists, such as Republican senator Robert Taft, opposed it*

**What was the signifcance of the Atlantic Charter 1941?**

* 1940 + bringing these countries into a military alliance would be useful, to counter the growing threat of the Axis powers in the Western Hemisphere
* how could they be politically imperialist if they rebounded their right to unilaterally intervene in the internal affairs of Latin America?
* ==1934 Treaty of Relations with Cuba nullifying the 1903 Platt Amendment== and removed Cuba from the direct sphere of America influence with one exception, it allowed for the continued control of ==Guantanamo Bay== by the US

**What was the signifcance of the** ==**Manhattan project 1945?**==

Showed how the world had entered the nuclear age, with the USA at the forefront

**What impact did WW2 have on the position of women?**

* 6 million women worked in manufacturing jobs due to widespread male enlistment which left gaping holes in the ==industrial== labour force
* While women worked in a variety of positions previously restricted to them, the ==aviation== industry saw the greatest increase in female workers
* ==Rosie the Riveter== recruitment propaganda = iconic image of working women during WW1, the campaign stressed the patriotic need for women to enter the work force/strong, serious, and competent. She ==symbolises== the vital importance of women workers to the defence position + promoted the idea that it was not ==unfeminine== for women to work in non-traditional jobs
* Even ==minority== women benefited, following the issue of the executive order 880l in 1941
* Women did face challenges in overcoming ==cultural stereotypes== against working women, as well as finding adequate childcare during working hours
* To help build the ==armaments== necessary to win the war, women found employment as electricians, welders and riveters in defence plants. Until that time, such positions had been strictly for men only
* WW2 became a symbol of ==freedom==. It was a time where women were no longer forced into the roles society had created for them
* WW2 had ==solidified== the notion that women were in the workforce to stay
* *Though women were crucial to the war effort, their pay continued to* ==*lag*== *far behind*

*their male counterparts because female workers rarely earned more than 50% of male wages*

**What was the social impact of WW2 on America?**

* One candidate for the most important change would be that the US became much more prosperous in the time after the war. Before the war, the US was a rich country, but just one of many. In addition, it was struggling because of the Depression. After the war, the US was without any rival the richest country in the world since all its competitors had been devastated by the war
* It became ==hyper industrialised== which distinguished the US from Europe

**What was the political-economical impact of WW2 on America?**

* While the damage was heavy, it failed to destroy ==US Pacific naval capabilities== for good. What it did succeed in was silencing the remaining isolationist voices in Congress and bringing the US into the war. It was the start of US interventionist policy, which has shaped world politics ever since
* The notion of American neutrality in the war was losing ==credibility== even before the attack on Pearl Harbour. Under the ==Lend-Lease==, the US would provide material aid to Hitler’s enemies. Dozens of billions of dollars-worth of defence equipment was shipped to the Allies, without which they would never have won the war
* After the war, American support continued with the ==Marshall Plan==; fearful that Europe, broke and in ruins, would succumb to ==communism==, the US bankrolled Europe’s reconstruction, ensuring that European consumers would be able to aford the new consumer goods that America’s workforce was producing in vast quantities

**What were the negative social impacts of WW2?**

*  Not all American citizens were allowed to retain their independence, after Pearl Harbor, FDR signed into law ==Executive Order 9066==, which resulted in the removal from their communities and the subsequent imprisonment of all Americans of Japanese descent who resided on the West Coast (12,000 in internment camps)
* It was the ofshoot of a combination of wartime panic + belief that anyone of ==Japanese== ancestry were capable of disloyalty + treachery + rumours + racial prejudice
* It was one of the most ==fagrant violations of civil liberties== in American history
* The feelings that paved the way for this began long before the attack, the lingering

resentment culminated after the attack