Psychology

Final exam

1. Psychology (definition)

The study of behavior and mental process( what people do, think, and feel, also be applied to animals) 

3. Psychology is a combination of…

Philosophy and science/anatomy  

Goals of Psychology

1\. Describe - what is happening(gather information on the observation)

2\. Explain - why (hypothesis and theories are formed as the observation develops more)

3\. Predict - what they will do in future situations

4\. Influence - to find a way to help

Wundt – Structuralism

“father of psychology” structure of the mind/parts of the mind used __introspection(thoughts, images, feelings, and sensations)__

James – Functionalism

How the mind works and its functions- did not believe you can measure consciousness - looked at evolution & how it helps develop behaviors that impact function in society(felt that thinking, learning, and other parts of the human mind could only exist because it helps us survive as species)

Psychodynamic -- Freud

to uncover Unconscious thoughts/ desires

* to uncover Unconscious thoughts/ desires, where patients unconscious thouhgts are seen as the main motivation for behavior
* Freudian Slips: Slips of the tongue that reveal unconscious feelings/ desires 
* Dream Analysis:desires show up in dreams 
* Psychological Problems: Too many emotions build up and lead to mental illness

3 levels of consciousness (+ diagram)

1.   Conscious - now aware  
2.    Preconscious - not aware of at the moment, but can remember a few memories
3.    Unconscious - totally out of awareness.

Free Association

technique where patients says whatever comes to mind

Behaviorism

(BF Skinner & J.B Watson) observational behavior, behavior is learned through reinforcement( if a behavior is rewarded it would continue) and punishment(if someone is punished for behavior, the behavior will stop) .

Humanistic (self-actualization)

(Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers) self-actualization, achieving personal growth.

Cognitive (self-talk)

the thought process, conversions you have in your head, and the way you think about yourself or other things(through studying a person’s cognition, psychologist can understand a person’s behavior)

Biological

Physical changes in brain & body(genetics, chemical reactions, hormones)

*  looks at the physical aspects of the brain and its impact on behavior
* Seeks to understand how genetics and chemical reactions affect behavior
* Heavy focus on the anatomy of the brain and body

Sociocultural

person’s culture, ethnic identity, gender identity to explain behavior 

Case study

a detailed study of one individual or group in great detail

Observational studies

laboratory observation: the study of behavior in a controlled situation.  Naturalistic observation: watching behavior without interacting with the environment

Surveys

use interviews and questionnaires to gather information about attitudes, experiences, or opinions

pro: great way to get a lot of information in a short amount of time

negative: people can still lie on survey and skew the data

\n Correlational studies (negative/positive)

A mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.

Correlation Coefficient

Numbers representing the direction(+,-) and strengths of the relationship between 2 variables. (Close to -1 the stronger)

Representative/random Sample

when you are not able to use the entire population, so a representative sample(small group) gives a “snapshot of the population.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Independent/dependent variables

Independent variable: what is being changed/manipulated by the researcher

Dependent variable: what is being measured by the researcher.

Control/experimental groups

Control Group - Group that doesn't get special treatment(no IV)

Experimental group(the one that is being tested): group that received special treatment = IV

Random assignment

separate participants into groups, assigning participants by a chance to group

Placebo

The placebo effect is when an improvement of symptoms is observed, despite using a nonactive treatment.

Single/double-blind studies

Single-blind(participants do not know there “assignments”) 

Double-blind(researcher nor participants know their “assignments' ') students nor persons gathering data know which group is controlling or experimental group.

Longitudinal/cross-sectional studies

Longitudinal - people of same age are studied and studied over a period of time as they grow/develop(longer time to complete takes 15 to 20 years

Cross- sectional: people of different ages examined at the same point in time(shorter period of time usually happens only once.

Informed Consent

Researcher must explain the study to the participants, to what they are agreeing to and have written consent.

Debrief

should be able to discuss the procedure and the finding switch the psychologist, they should be told if they have been divided and given the reason why.

Protection of Participants

CANNOT traumatize the participants, be protected mentally and physically harm.

Deception

Participants cannot be misled or wrongly informed about the aim of the research. 

Confidentiality

 participant must be kept anonymous, unless told otherwise

Withdrawal

participants should be able to leave a study any time if they feel uncomfortable

Psychodynamic Perspective

1. (belived that personality is formed by experiences in early childhood): **Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives and emotions that characterizes an individual**

* **belived that personality is formed by experiences in early childhood**
* **Psychoanalysis = focused on the unconscious because it stores all of our memories, emotions and thoughts which influence our behavior even though we are unaware of them**
* **He believed that traumatic events in childhood force thoughts & emotions into the unconscious mind(free association)**

ID

*  **Biological drives & demands for immediate gratification**
* **Operates on the pleasure principle - “I want it now syndrome”**

Ego

* **Rational, thoughts, decision making aspects of personality(you get to choose what is right and wrong)** 
* **Operates in terms of the reality principle and acts as a “compromiser” between the id and superego**

Superego

* **Represents morality and authority** 
* **Operates on the moral principle - right/wrong and good/bad**

Defense Mechanisms

(Methods used by ego(conscious self)protect itself against anxiety caused by a conflict between the id’s demands & superego’s constraints - a problem if it causes self-defeating behavior and emotional problems

 **Repression**

* **We avoid painful thouhgts by forcing them into the back of your mind(avoid, ignore, backburner)** 
* **Ex: …Wintess a murder, not remember the details when asked by police**

**Regression**

*  **we retreat to behaving or thinking like a child in order to avoid adult issues**
* **Throwing a temper tantrum when not getting what you want**

**Displacement**

* **We vent anger against non-threatening people and objects** 
* **Ex: Angry at mom, takes out anger on family dog**

**Projection**

* **We ascribe our own unacceptable feelings or behaviors to other people**
* **Ex: You want to break up with bg/gf, accuse him/her of wanting to break up with you**

**Rationalization**

* **We try to create logical explanations of our behavior in order to justify it)** 
* **Ex:...Want to go to the movies with firdns, so justify goig instead of studying for exams by stating you would have failed anyways.**

**Denial**

* **We refuse to receive “reality” in order to protect ourselves from it( If you dont like whats happening in reality, you will deny that it is actually happening)** 
* **Ex:...Get rregection letter from college of choice, but still tell everyone you are going**

**Sublimation**

* **we energy(negative energy - anger) on prosocial activities in order to avoid undesirable activities** 
* **Ex: …Like to hit things to take up boxing as a hobby**

**Reaction Formation**

* **we express feelings that are oppsotoe to undesirable ones we feel( opposite of the way we actually feel)** 
* **Ex: Really dislikes psychology teacher, but tell everyone how much you love him/her**

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development:

Describes the impact of social experiences on our sense of self, stages are cumulative and gradual

**Trust v. Mistrust**

**(1 yr old)**

**= infant require dependable care and comfort**

**= If the baby feels that they receive dependable care and that they can trust the work around them, they will have success in this stage** 

**= Success: They learn to trust people**

**= Failure: Parents are neglectful; influence future relationships.**

**Autonomy v. Doubt**

**( 2 yrs)**

**= Child attempts to master physical skills (crawling, walking, running, talking)** 

**= success: Leads to self control and confidence** 

**= Failure: leads to feeling inadequate**

\n

**Initiative v. Guilt**

**(3-5 yrs)**

**= Children need to be assertive in exploration and play(initiative)** 

**= if adults crtizicie chidlren for their curisodity at this stage, this may lead to feelings of gult for “being a nuisance”** 

**= Success: Feeling capable of leading and making decisions** 

**= Failure: can lead to self doubt**

**Industry v. Inferiority**

 **(6-12 yrs)**

**= Industry - developing a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks** 

**= Inferiority - Pessimism and lack of confidence in ability to do well**

**= Child compares themselves to others to develop a sense of achievement** 

* **Success = Feeling competent to handle situations later in life** 
* **Failure = creates a sense of inferiority**

**Identity v. Role confusion**

**(12-18 yrs)**

**= Teens must try ti achie a sense of identity**

**= figure out the roles you would like to occupy as an adult** 

* **Success= Fidelity = feeling confident enough in your own skin to accept others even if you hve ideological differences** 
* **Failure = Repression and role confusion.  May experiment with many different roles/lifestyles.**

**Intimacy v. isolation**

 **(18-20 yrs)** 

**= Major conflict in this stage of life is from loving, intimate relationships with other people**

**= Important event- romantic relationship**

* **Success= Leads to fulfilling relationships with others** 
* **Failure= Feelings of isolation and loneliness**

Trait Theory

(A tendency to respond in a certain way in many different kinds of situations) 

* Trait theories can be applies to everyone and that the trait can be measured 

**3  Criteria’s of personality traits**

1. **Consistency**

**Individuals must be somewhat consistent across situations in their behaviors related to the trait. For example, if they are talkative at home, they tend to also be talkative at work**

2. **Stability**

**A trait must also be somewhat stable over time as demonstrated behaviors related to the trait.  Ex: talkative at 30, also taltavie at 40**

3. **Individual Differences**

**People differ from one another on behaviors related to the trait.  People differ on how frequently they talk and so personality traits such as talkative exist.**

Gordon Alport

( Defined common traits(those that apply to everyone) and Individual traits(those that apply more to specific person)

Cardinal Traits

Characteristics that is so pervasive that the person is almost identifies with that trait. Ex: Oprah = Sociability) 

Central Traits

Charaacterisitics that makes us predictable (ways people would describe you…usally 5 to 10 main central traits - ex, Kindness, honesty, friendliness)

Secondary Traits

Characterisitcs that dont have a great impact on us but that show our preferences for different items like food and music(more changeable, ex; shyness, irritability)(less consistent) 

Scale

OCEAN theory(the big five)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IB1FVbo8TSs

**O**penness to experience

* **describes people who are open-mided and willing to try intellectual experiences, new ideas or creative experiences**

Oposite is **Resistance** to new experiences…being predictable, conforming and unimaginative

**C**onscientiousness

* **Identifies individls who are dutiful, dedicated to completing tasks, organized, and responsible**

Opposite is **Impulisveness…** Includes tendencies such as carelessnness, giving up reality and bring irresponsible

**E**xtroversion

*  **associated with warm talkatviness, and being energetic**

Opposite is **Intoroversion** … being quiet, shy and cautious

**Agreeableness**

* **involves being cooperative, kind, trusting and goon-natured**

Opposite is **Antagonism**…being abrasive, iratible, suspicious and jealous

**E**motional Stability

* **identities individuals who experience things relatively easily without getting upset**

Opposite is **Neuroticism…** being constantly angry or worried or complaining all the time..tend to look for the bad rather than the good.

Social(those around you) Cognitive(your thought process) Theory

believed that observational learning, modeling, and thought processes lead to personality(Emphasize the importance of both the influences of other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectations for learning)

Albert Bandura

* Believed that people mostly learn through imitating models. 
* Where the term “role models” comes from. 
* Albert Bandura is most famous for conducting the Bobo Doll experiment

Process of Experiment the Bobo Doll

* He had 2 groups of children watch an adult play with a bobo doll
* One adult acted aggressively towards the doll 
* One adult was nice playing with the doll 
* Children were then let into the room to play with the doll 
* Findings: 
* He found that children exposed to aggressive behavior acted aggressively towards the dolls. 
* What does this tell us about Social Learning Theory and role models? = Observation role models affect our behavior

Julian Rotter

* focused more on the cognitive process when developing personality. 
* Believed that personality was a set of potential responses to situations. 

One pattern he looked at was a person’s **locus of control.**

**Locus of Control=**

The tendency for people to assume that they either have control or do not have control over events and consequences in their lives.

**Internal locus of control**

* **Assume their actions directly impact their consequences** 
* **People with an ILC usually have high achievement/ success**

**External locus of control**

* **Believe their fate is controlled by others or luck.** 
* **People with ELC usually develop depression and give up easily**

Humanistic Theory

* Reminder= Humanists believe that we all strive for self actualization. 
* To do this, we develop a self concept to help us get there. 
* Self Concept= how we perceive our behaviors, abilities and unique characteristics.

1. Self Image=
2. Self-esteem=
3. Ideal self=

1. How you perceive yourself 
2. How much value, you place on yourself 
3. How you wish you were really like
* These can be influenced by the words and actions of the people who are important to us (parents, peers, teachers, etc)

Real Self vs Ideal Self

* Real self= one’s actual perception of your traits and abilities 
* Ideal Self= who you want to be 
* Influenced by people you look up to at first, but as you grow older this is more up to you. 
* If there is a mismatch between the real self and ideal self= anxiety

How messages are sent in the nervous system

When cells are stimulated past a certain minimum point and emit and signal, which is action potential.

Diagram of neuron

Central Nervous System vs. Peripheral Nervous System

*  Central nervous system only consists of the brain and spinal
* While the Peripheral Nervous System consists of small branches of nerves that reach other parts of the body.

What each nervous system controls 

* Somatic NS = what you control, like writing on a piece of paper 
* Autonomic NS = what you don’t control, like breathing, heart beat, etc 
* Sympathetic NS = prepares the body to deal with emergencies or stress activities 
* Parasympathetic NS = works to control your body down to recover from a stressful activity.

The neurotransmitters and what they control

* Endorphins = pain reduction, please sensation
* Acetycholine = involved in musction action, memory, and cofniitve functioning, 
* Dopamine = involved in learning, memory, emotions, and movement. 
* Serotonin = involved in sleep, appetite and mood

Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland 

\- “master gland”, directed by the hypothalamus, sends hormones to other sites in the body, and secretes hormones while you are sleeping( controls the endocrine system, tells other glands what to produce, also responsible for growth hormone)

Thyroid 

Thyroxine = regulates metabolism(high and low)(how fast body burns through energy)

Adrenal glands

* Adrenaline( epinephrine & norepinephrine) 
* Adrenaline hypes you up!!

Gonands(sex Glands) 

Progesterian(Ovaries)/Estrogen(Testes- Testosterone)  

Types of nervous systems and their impact on the body

Peripheral NS

* Somatic NS = what you control, like writing on a piece of paper
* Autonomic NS = what you don’t control, like breathing, heartbeat, etc

Branches off from Autonomic NS

* Sympathetic NS = prepares the body to deal with emergencies or stress activities(hypes you up)
* Parasympathetic NS = works to control your body down to recover from a stressful activity(calms you down)

Central NS

Phineas Gage Case Study

He was a railroad foreman who was working to clear a plath on the rails,  As Gage was filling a filling a hole with dynamite, it exploded sending a rod through Gage’s head.  Which caused his personality and grealy changed, and often was short-tempered and said innaporpritate words.  It prevented him of his thoughts and ideas.  Gage damaged his Frontal lobe, thus showed science what the frontal lobe controls.

Frontal Lobe

* Reasoning
*  Planning
* creative thinking
* emotional control
* Personality
* movement(motor cortex)

Parietal Lobe

* Touch
* Pressure
* Temperature
* pain(sensory cortex)

Temporal Lobe

* Auditory stimuli(hearing)
* Memory (hippocampus) 
* Emotion (amygdala) 
* Speaking

Occipital Lobe

Concerned with the many aspects of vision.

Cerebella

Controls balance for walking and standing and other complex motor, also controls muscles action so that the body can move smoothly,

Medulla

Manages heart rate circulation and breathing, transmits signals between the spinal cord and different parts of the brain, controls autonomic processes like sneezing and swallowing.

Pons

It handles unconscious processes and jobs, like breathing and the **sleep cycle,** it also controls muscles and carries information from the senses in your face and head. Also, manage your pain signals from anywhere below your neck, your balance, and your movement.