south asia

Guru Kabir

An Indian mystic who lived from 1440 to 1518, known for his devotional poetry that illustrates cross-cultural interactions.

Chola Kingdom

A centralized government that reigned over southern India for more than 400 years (850-1267 C.E.) and extended its rule to Ceylon.

Vijayanagar

A kingdom in southern India that existed from the mid-1300s until the mid-1500s, founded by two brothers who returned to Hinduism after converting to Islam.

Mughal Empire

A single empire that rose in the sixteenth century, bringing centralized rule and peace to South Asia.

Political Centralization

The concentration of political power in a central authority, which was not common in South Asian history after the Gupta Dynasty.

Gupta Dynasty

A dynasty that dominated South Asia until its collapse in 550 C.E., marking the end of the Golden Age of Indian history.

Northern India

A region that experienced significant upheaval due to multiple invasions by Muslim armies, leading to instability.

Southern India

A region that was more politically stable than northern India, with successful centralized governments after the Gupta Dynasty.

Umayyad Empire

An empire whose soldiers invaded Sind in the eighth century C.E., but had little impact on the daily lives of the local population.

Himalayas

Mountain ranges that provided protection to India from invasions from the north and east.

Sind

A region of northwestern India in present-day Pakistan that was invaded by the Umayyad Empire.

Ceylon

An island just south of India, known today as Sri Lanka, that was ruled by the Chola Kingdom during the eleventh century.

Indian Ocean Trade

Trade routes that the Chola Kingdom's navy accessed, allowing ships to travel as far as the South China Sea, over 3,000 miles.

Sinhalese

The ethnic group in Ceylon that drove out the Chola invaders, leading to the decline of Chola rule.

Delhi Sultanate

A historical kingdom based in Delhi that sent two brothers to southern India, leading to the establishment of Vijayanagar.

Political Regionalism

The fragmentation of political power among local rulers, which made centralized rule difficult in South Asia.

Cross-Cultural Interaction

The exchange and influence between different cultures, as illustrated in Guru Kabir's poem reflecting Hinduism and Islam.

Golden Age

A period in Indian history characterized by significant achievements in arts, science, and culture, ending with the collapse of the Gupta Dynasty.

Ethnic Diversity

The presence of various ethnic groups in South Asia, contributing to its complex social and political landscape.

Religious Thought

The evolution of beliefs and practices within religions, influenced by interactions between different faiths in South Asia.

Political Structures

The organization and governance systems within a region, which varied significantly between northern and southern India.

Islamic Presence

The growing influence of Islam in northern India due to invasions, changing the region's religious landscape.

Sind

A region on the eastern fringes of the Dar al-Islam, isolated from the seat of empire in Damascus.

Mahmud of Ghazni

A conqueror who invaded the Punjab region and controlled much of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Delhi Sultanate

A regime that reigned for 300 years from the thirteenth through the sixteenth centuries, with Delhi as its seat of power.

Jizya

A tax imposed on all non-Muslim subjects of the Delhi Sultanate.

Mughal Empire

A foreign Islamic empire that rose to power in India during the middle of the sixteenth century.

Dar al-Islam

Might be called the world's first global empire, connecting societies from North Africa to South Asia.

Islamic merchants

Traders who traveled to non-Muslim lands in search of trading partners, paving the way for the spread of Islam.

Indian Ocean

Transformed into an economic hot spot during the post-classical era due to Islamic merchants' connections.

Economic Structures in South Asia

The decentralized political landscape where local kingdoms played a major role despite the Islamic presence.

Sogdian Merchants

Main caravan merchants along the Silk Road, primarily trading in China.

Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin

Expanded significantly with the spread of Islam, connecting more cities than ever before.

Products traded by Muslim merchants

Silk, paper, porcelain, spices, gems, woods, gold, salt, amber, furs.

Products traded by Chinese merchants

Cotton, tea, silk, metals, opium, salt.

Products traded by Jewish merchants

Silk, gold, wine, linens.

Products traded by merchants in diasporic communities

Glass beads, linens, dyes, spices.

Impact of Mahmud's conquests

Plundered Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines, erecting mosques on holy sites.

Delhi's geographical significance

Located in north-central India, it is near the present-day capital city, New Delhi.

Mongol army's impact

Demolished the Abbasid Empire and posed a threat to the Delhi Sultanate.

Sultans' focus in the late thirteenth century

Became more focused on defending against the Mongol army rather than extending their rule.

Islamic presence in northern India

Dominated the political history of the era and created resentment among native Indians.

Conversion to Islam

Some Indians were incentivized to convert due to the jizya tax imposed by the Delhi Sultanate.

Resentment among native Indians

Caused by the imposition of taxes and the presence of foreign rulers.

Cultural impact of Islamic rule

Islamic rulers' actions did little to endear Islam to the Indian people.

Muslim Persians and Arabs

Dominant seafarers instrumental in transporting goods to port cities across the Indian Ocean.

Calicut

A bustling port city in India known for its spice trade and interactions with foreign merchants.

Spice Islands

Modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia, known for exporting nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, and cardamom.

Monsoon System

Winds essential for trading in the Indian Ocean, originating from the northeast in winter and southwest in spring and summer.

Triangular lateen sails

Sails used by Arab sailors that could easily catch winds from different directions.

Stern rudder

An invention by Chinese sailors that provided stability and maneuverability to ships.

Hinduism

The religion practiced by the majority of South Asians prior to the arrival of Islam.

Islam

A strictly monotheistic religion that emphasizes the equality of all believers.

Southwest Asia exports

Horses, figs, and dates were exported from Southwest Asia.

Chinese porcelain

A coveted product exported by China, leading to the term 'fine china' in the West.

High-carbon steel

A sought-after material from India used for making knives and swords.

Cotton fabrics

India became known for the high quality of its cotton fabrics.

Mombasa, Mogadishu, and Sofala

Swahili coastal cities known for exporting slaves, ivory, and gold.

Artisan-crafted stonework

A specialized product from India that merchants sought.

Tanned leather

Another specialized product sought by merchants from India.

Intermarriage

A method through which Arab and East African merchants brought Islam to southern Asia.

Caste system

A hierarchical social structure associated with Hinduism, which Islam opposes in favor of equality.

Quran

The sole sacred text that Muslims refer to for spiritual guidance.

Trade interactions

Merchants from different regions interacted and exchanged goods, leading to cultural exchanges.

Port cities

Locations where merchants would remain for months, waiting for favorable winds.

Sailing technology

Technological advancements that facilitated navigation in the Indian Ocean.

Carpets

Meticulously woven products from India that attracted merchants.

Pepper

A spice sought by merchants from India's southern coastal cities.

Children of intermarriage

Generally brought up as Muslims, reflecting the cultural blending in port cities.

Islam

A proselytizing religion that actively sought converts.

Mahmud of Ghazni

A conqueror who destroyed Hindu and Buddhist shrines while spreading Islam.

Voluntary Conversion

Most converts to Islam in India came voluntarily rather than through force.

Indian Ocean Trade

Muslim merchants moved to Indian port cities and often married local women, leading to conversions.

Low-caste Hindus

Individuals from lower social strata who were attracted to Islam for the promise of improved social status.

Buddhism

A religion that became a minority in India due to corruption and raids by early Muslim conquerors.

Sufis

Mystics who converted large numbers of people to Islam by emphasizing personal connection to a higher power.

Personal Devotion

A focus on individual spiritual connection to God, emphasized by both Sufism and the Bhakti Movement.

Bhakti Movement

A movement in southern India emphasizing love and devotion to God, appealing to all social classes.

Mira Bai

A famous female poet of the Bhakti Movement known for her songs of devotion to Krishna.

Guru Kabir

A poet who preached that true spirituality comes from personal faith, transcending conventional religious boundaries.

Caste System

India's strongest historical continuity, providing stability in a politically decentralized society.

Jatis

Subcastes within the caste system that operated like workers' guilds and absorbed newcomers.

Social Structures in South Asia

The arrival of Islam did little to change the basic structure of society, particularly the caste system.

Corruption among Monks

A factor that contributed to the disorganization of Buddhism during the spread of Islam.

Sufi Mystics

Effective missionaries who allowed converts to maintain certain rituals not recognized by Islam.

Devotional Groups

Groups that developed during the interaction of Islam and Hinduism, focusing on personal devotion.

Religious Truth

Kabir emphasized looking within oneself for spiritual truth rather than relying on established religions.

Emotional Connection to God

A central theme in Kabir's teachings, advocating for a personal relationship with the divine.

Cults

Religious groups that became popular by preaching personal salvation during the Bhakti Movement.

Equality of Believers

An emphasis in Islam that attracted many low-caste Hindus seeking social elevation.

Political Decentralization

A characteristic of South Asian society that was maintained despite the arrival of Islam.

Religious Communities

Sufis and Bhakti devotees attempted to build bridges between Hindu and Muslim beliefs.

Caste System

A social hierarchy in India that determines a person's social status and occupation.

Low-caste Hindus

Individuals from the lower social strata in the caste system who often faced social and economic disadvantages.

Islamic Influence on Gender Relations

Islam's arrival did little to change the treatment of women, who remained confined to separate social spheres.

Syncretism in Architecture

The blending of architectural styles, such as Hindu temple towers and Islamic mosque domes.

Cultural Achievements in South Asia

Indian contributions to science, particularly in algebra and geometry, which influenced the Islamic world.

Arabic Numerals

The number system commonly used today, which originated among Indian mathematicians.

Delhi Sultanate

A period of Muslim rule in India that saw the construction of significant Islamic architecture.

Qutab Minar

A famous leaning tower in Delhi, known as the tallest structure in India today.