AP Psych - Unit 7: Cognition, intelligence

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Cognition

The process whereby we acquire and use knowledge(and memories); thought

Prototype

mental image or best example of a category

Top-Down

Applying previous knowledge ti a new experience to understand it

Bottom-up

Entirely new experience with no prior knowledge

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory(Rehearsal, mnemonics, uniqueness of event, chunking)

Chunking

Encoding by grouping meaningful inputs together, or familiar manageable units

Serial Position effect

Tendency to remember items at beginning and end of lists except highly unique items and at the end

Self reference

a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which the self is implicated in the information

Mnemonic device

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices, like acronyms and acrostics

Peg word system

a mnemonic device that utilizes visual imagery and the simple jingle

Hierarchical groups

We organize words or concepts into hierarchical groups which help remember them better than when we see them presented randomly

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study.

Massed practice

can produce speedy short-term learning and a feeling of confidence

Distributed practice

Produces better long-term recall

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Storage

How you store memories, sensory memory, short-term memory, long term memory

Iconic memory

a fleeting sensory memory of a visual stimuli

Sensory storage

All sensory input that comes in; most is filtered out and decays

Selective Attention

What we focus on is all that can be encoded, multi-tasking between two conscious activities is not possible

Short-term memory

Your conciously activated memory;lasts about 20 seconds on average and can hold 7 bits of information

Recall

Retrieving information not currently in conscious awareness but all that was learned at an earlier time

Recognition

identifying items learned previously

Relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

Long term memory

All use hippocampus as a filing cabinet: Episodic/emotional, semantic, procedural,

Episodic and emotional

episodes of your life, flashbulb memories, uses amygdala

Semantic

works like an encyclopedia, facts

Procedural

Muscle memory, physical skills, uses the cerebellum

Explicit memories(declarative)

retention of facts and experiences from long-term memory that one can consciously know and “declare”; semantic and episodic memories

Implicit memory(nondeclarative)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations in long-term memory independent of conscious recollection

Memory consolidation

memories are not permanently stored in the hippocampus

Cerebellum

plays the role of forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

Basal ganglia

Facilitate formation of our procedural memories(nondeclaritive/implicit) for skills

Amygdala

Stress hormone focus memory

Long term potentiation

Eric Kandel’s research; increased efficiency of potential neural firing which provides a neural basis for learning and remembering associations

Aplysia

the sea slugs; discovered less prompting to release neurotransmitter; serotonin

Priming

the activiation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in long term implicit memory

Recall

pulling information out of LTM without specific cues

Recognition

pulling information out of the LTM with significant cues

Priming memory

using retrieval cues; often used in free association

Mood Congruent

tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s current good or bad emotional state

Decay

Memory fades

Proactive interference

old information interferes with remembering new information

Retroactive Interference

new information interferes with remembering old information

Regression

Freudian Psychoanalytic reason for forgetting

Amnesia

due to organic reasons; forgetting due to injury or disease

Anterograde amnesia

new events contained in the immediate memory are not transferred to the permanent as LTM, typically after a head injury

Retrograde amnesia

the distinct inability to recall some memory or memories of the past, beyond ordinary forgetfulness

Source amnesia

the inability to recall who was the source of a memory(person) or at times to recall a memory that didn’t actually happen

infantile amnesia

our conscious memory of our first 4 years is largely blank

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Severe alcoholism that prevents vitamin absorption(B vitamins) crucial in forming and maintaining memories

Alzhmier’s

Destruction of neural connections due to the abnormal amyloid production based on genetic predisposition

Superior autobiographical memory

a very detailed LTM

Reconsolidation

process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored

Misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

Imagining techniques

repeatedly imaging nonexistent actions and events can create false memories

Algorithms

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristics

simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

Insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to the problem; ie. writer’s block

Working backwards

working with end goal always in mind

Sub-goals

breaking a task into smaller parts

Means-end

when each sin goal is examined to see if changes should be made

Convergent thinking

thinking directed towards one correct solution to a problem

Divergent thinking

thinking that meets the criteria of originality, inventiveness and flexibility; thinking of multiple solutions, hence creativity

Confirmation bis

tendency to search for information/evidence that confirms one’s preconceptions

Belief perseverance

holding a wrong belief or being unable to consider other viewpoints

Fixation

inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Mental set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Functional fixedness

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions impediment to problem solving

Representative Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

Availability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind(b/c of vividness)

Overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct

Framing

the way an issue is posed

Central Route to Persuasion

using facts, research and evidence to try and persuade someone to a point of view

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

using emotional appeal or some non-evidence based appeal to persuade someone to a POV

Language

out spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound units

Morpheme

the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word(prefix)

Grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

selecting the correct word to convey the meaning you intend

Syntax

putting the words into the correct order according to grammatical standards of your language

Noam Chomsky

came up with Universal language

Babbling stage

begins around 4 months; babies productive language

One-word stage

1 to 2 years where children speak in mostly single words

Two-word stage

18 months, speech follows the rules of syntax, arranging words in a sensible order

Worf’s hypothesis

culture develops/causes language

Charles Spearman

believed intelligence is general(g); people who are bright in one area, are bright in another

R.B. Catell

Identified two clusters of mental abilities: crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence

Crystallized intelligence

abilities such as reasoning and verbal skills, memory pertaining to general knowledge(increase as you age)

Fluid intelligence

spatial and visual imagery, and the ability to notice visual details

L.L. Thurstone

Believed that intelligence is made up of seven distinct, independent abilities(spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, reasoning)

Robert Sternberg

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Analytic intelligence

the ability to learn how to do things, problem solve, and acquire new knowledge

Creative intelligence

adjust to new tasks, use new concepts, respond well in situations

Practical intelligence

ability to select contexts in which you can excel and solve practical problems

Howard Gardner

multiple intelligence

Daniel Goleman and Savoy

Proposed theory of emotional intelligence(5 components)

Binet-simon scale

First test of intelligence, developed to identify children who might have difficulty in school; mental age

I.Q. score

Mental age x chrological age/100