ant175 final exam

What are the four nuclear areas for agriculture?

Andes-Peru, Mesoamerica, Near East, Southeast Asia

What are the four main environments in the Andes?

1. Coast
2. Tropical rainforest (The Amazon)
3. Montana
4. HIghlands

What is the climate in the Andes?

-Tropical to subtropical
-Only dry/cold and warm/rainy seasons

What happens to seasons below the equator?

Are reversed

Characteristics of the Peruvian Coast

-One of driest deserts in world
-Only rains with EL Nino (used to be every 50 years)
-On pacific ocean
-Less than 4" of rain a year due to an accumulation of condensation
-Great environment for organic remains

Why are river valleys important?

The green and productive river valleys cut across the desert. Ancient populations lived along the rivers until 1800 BC when irrigation was developed.

What is the Humboldt Current?

-A 500 mile wide river of cold water w/in the warm ocean.
-Moves south to northwest
-Attracts one of the largest concentrations of marine life in world

What are the factors of the Humboldt?

-Carries millions of plankton which attracts marine life.
-The abundant marine life attracts non-migratory birds which produce a fertilizer known a guano.
-Coldness of current neutralizes normal evaporation to produce clouds/rain leading to no rain.
-Lack of evaporation leads to fog conditions that last for 8 months

What is guano?

Rich natural fertilizer used in farming that is excreted by non flying and non migrating birds; peru became rich by exporting this; accumulation used to make hills

What are lomas?

A fog meadow that accumulate at the foothills of the Highlands b/c it has enough moisture to produce f

Geological formations in Highlands?

River basins, valleys, high plateaus, and active volcanoes.

Why did the highlands use stone-walled terraces?

Used in ancient times to stop the issue of losing topsoil in the rainy season.
-keeps soil in place and creates a flat surface

Why do plants struggle to grow above the timberline?

Elevations above timberline (13,000 ft) there is too high solar radiation and extreme changes in daily temperatures

What domestic crops cannot grow above the timberline?

Corn, squash, and beans

What are the two subregions of the highlands?

1. Puna
2. Altiplano

What is puna?

Subregion of the highlands w/ treeless mountains

What is altiplano?

Subregion of highlands above timberline that are treeless flat terrain around lake titicaca

What makes it hard for humans to be above timberline?

Low barometric pressure and O2 concentration

What is Lake Titicaca?

Highest navigable lake in world

High altitude characteristics?

1. Intense solar radiation
2. Limited nutrition base (food must be obtained from lower regions
3. Extreme temp fluctuation (hot in day freezing at night)
4. Low barometric pressure and O2 concentration

What else is different at high altitudes?

Boil temp, taste of sugar and salt, weight loss (due to hypoxia and physical stress

What is high altitude hypoxia?

People born at low altitudes experience physiological disturbances in their respiratory, cardiovascular, and hematological (blood) systems.W

What does hypoxia cause?

- Increase in pulmonary ventilation/fast breathing
- Increase in heart rate
- Decrease in ability to memorize and learn
- Muscular weakness + decline in coordination of limbs/reduced vital capacities
- Increase in number of red-cell count needed to overcome effects of hypoxia

How did humans acclimate to hypoxia?

-larger lung capacity, large heart, more red blood cells in bone marrow, greater vital capacity
-Adjustments are not genetic and are not inherited
-Depend on age, health, and physical condition.

What is the puya plant?

-Unique to highlands above timberline
-30 ft tree that produces over 3000 flowers every 40 years. Related to pineapple

What is the Montana?

-Transitional area along eastern lope of Andes
-Includes lower mountains w/out hypoxia
-Has tropical vegetation continuing down to sea level/into Amazon

Why is life in Montana difficult?

Landslides

Characteristics of Tropical Rainforest?

-Contains largest biodiversity in world
-Soil has low fertility
-Amazon river is worlds largest river by volume (1/5 of worlds freshwater

What plants originated in the Montana/Rainforest?

Peanut, coca, and manioc (yuca)

What is a site for a multi-center in highlands?

Flea cave

Why are some Andean plants disappearing/becoming wild?

The Spanish only chose a small amount of plants to introduce to Europe/rest of world

What plants/animals were domesticated above the timberline?

potato, oca, olluco, quinua, canihua, alpaca, llama

What is olluco?

A small yellow vegetable. A watery potato with mild flavor

What is oca?

A carrot w/ baked potato texture. Tastes like carrot with cinnamon.

How many species of potato were in peru and why?

1,000s in order to prevent widespread loss of crops due to disease/climate (like potato famine)

How many species of potato did Spanish adopt?

1

What is quinua?

grain with high protein, little fat, 30% more nutritious than milk. NOT chosen by spanish

What is canihua?

smaller quinua

What are alpaca?

Camalid domesticated for high quality wool for clothes and a source of lean healthy meat
- meat can be freeze dried and preserved
- was used for wool around world but not food

What are llamas?

Camelid domesticated for low quality wool, lean healthy meat, and to be a beast of burden.
-were sacrificed in religious ceremonies for mother earth
-used to protect heard of sheep

What were the two species of wild camelids?

Guanco and Vicuna

What were guana hunted for?

Meat

What were Vicuna hunted for?

Meat and very high quality wool

What are 3 other andean animals?

Andean dogs, muscovy duck, and guinea pig

What are andean dogs?

Ugly and hairless dogs that were domesticated for hunting and protection. Not selected by Spanish

What are muscovy ducks?

Size/weight of turkey. Domesticated for food. Not selected by Spanish

What are guinea pigs?

Rodent domesticated for food but introduced as a pet by Spanish. Originally named K'ui.

What foods were domesticated below timberline in highlands?

Chili pepper, avocado, bean, squash, gourd, cotton, and maize

What is weird about andean domestication of maize?

No wild teosinte in Andes (Spanish only took corn from mexico)

What is manoic?

used today to make tapioca

What is coca?

domesticated to overcome effects of hypoxia, fatigue, and in ceremonies related to mother earth; cocaine extracted in 19th century
-used to make coke

What is the chronological order of the Andean region?

PRECERAMIC STAGE


1. HG and Early Agriculture Period
2. Early Preceramic/Lithic Period
3. Late Preceramic/Cotton Preceramic Period

CERAMIC STAGE


4. Initial Period
5. Early Horizon (Early Intermediate Period)


4. Middle Horizon (Late Intermediate Period)
5. Late Horizon
6. Spanish Conquest

What is the Lithic Period?

\-Continuation of HG and Early Agriculture Period

\-Also known as Early Preceramic Period.

\

Highlands during Early Preceramic?

\-Had a gradual transition from HG to agriculture

\-Dealt w/the same consequences of agriculture as Mesoamerica

Coast during Early Preceramic?

\-Mainly still HG in river valleys/lomas using marine resources.

What two non-food highland plants were used on Coast? (Late Preceramic)

\-Cotton- used for fishing nets

\-Gourds- used for fishing floaters

“Industrial plants)

What is Caral?

\-First civilization in the Americas

\-on coast during late preceramic period

\-One of the driest places in world

Characteristics of Caral?

\-HG and fishing + use of industrial plants produced large surplus without agriculture

\-Full-time sedentism, specialists, population increases

\-Used corporate labor construction to create large impressive architecture

\-No social stratification or warfare

What is Kotosh?

\-Highland city contemporary w/ Caral

\-Practiced llama/alpaca pastoralism and relied more on domestic plants

\-Had surplus but less impressive architecture than Caral

What is the Initial Period?

\-Beginning of Ceramic Stage

\-Coil-made ceramic introduced to Peru from Valdira, Ecuador

\-Oldest use of intensive agriculture

What were the two different ceramic shapes during the Initial Period?

1. Stirrup Spout- North. Single, split neck.
2. Double spout+bridge- South. Two openings connected by a solid bridge

Highlands during Initial Period?

\-Full reliance on intensive agriculture an pastoralism

\-First use of gold

\-Had class differences, accumulation, and surpluses controlled by a religious/political authority

Coast during initial period?

\-Full reliance on fishing and irrigation farming

\-Had all highland domesticates

What are the 3 Horizons?

When highland civilizations expanded into the coast. Early, middle, and late.

\-Had intermediate periods in between

What civilization started the Early Horizon?

Chavin

What are the 3 Chavin sites?

Highlands- Chavin

Coast- Senchin and Paracas

Characteristics of Chavin culture?

Social differences (religious authorities, farmers, specialist), stone, gold, textiles, supernatural art style

Chavin art style?

\-Supernatural

\-Includes animals from montana or tropical forest combined with human figures

Examples of Chavin art?

\-Supernatural heads in architecture

\-Jaguar grinding stone

\-Stone sculptures of humans w/ animal features

What is the San Pedro cactus?

Hallucinogenic cactus used in religious ceremonies

Chavin religion?

\-Had no cities but a large ceremonial center

\-Influenced people with original ideas based on supernatural images.

\-giant underground silent passage w/ impressive carvings and sculptures (NASA)

How does NASA relate to Chavin?

NASA studied how humans react to being in a completely dark and silent room. People could only go 45 minutes without going crazy and hallucinating. How Chavin passage worked to encourage religion.

How did Chavin end?

\-Related to El Nino bringing rain/floods to the coast and a drought to the highlands for an extended period of time.

\-Hardships from El Nino may have caused them to blame/abandon Chavin gods.

What are the intermediate periods?

Civilizations that occured and stayed on the coast.

What two civilizations occurred in the early intermediate period?

Moche (north) and Nasca (south)

What did Moche and Nasca both have?

\-Large sedentary populations

\-Urbanism

\-Warfare

\-Elites w/ centralized authority

\-Full time specialists

\-Ended w/ El Nino

What early intermediate civilization developed in the north?

Moche centered in Moche Valley

What early intermediate civilization developed in the south?

Nasca centered in Nasca Valley

Moche taxation?

\-Corporate labor construction with labor taxation system

\-Taxes were paid w/ labor and products

Moche arcitecture?

\-Construction was done in vertical segments as each community paid taxes by building separate sections

\-Used for walls and irrigation canals

\-Adobe bricks in each section had uniform markings and were made of soil from different areas

\-Built pyramid of sun this was

Moche metal technology?

\-Known for elaborate and expensive elite burials and high development in metallurgy

\-Includes casting, smelting, alloys (silver, gold, copper)

\-Earspools

Moche ceramic technology?

\-Mass production

\-Sex pots (very detailed and realistic)

Nasca burials?

Included fine textiles, ceramics, gold, and silver ornaments

Nasca Geoglyphs?

\-Extensive line animal drawing in the desert.

\-Made to predict seasons and record constellations

\-Made by digging into dark surface sands to expose lighter compacted sand

Trepanation?

Nasca skull surgery preformed to save people's lives who received severe blow to the head during interpersonal conflict; opening the skull served to remove blood and dead tissue to relieve pressure; often successful shown by healing of bone growth

\-Evidence of practice using old bones

\-Used obsidian tools and coca leaves

Who used skull shaping?

Nasca

What were the two types of skull shaping?

\-One to widen one to make taller

\-Performed by Nasca people performed since childhood for aesthetic, social, or ethnic identity purposes using wood to bind babies heads

What civilizations developed during the middle horizon?

Tiahuanaco (South) and Huari (North)

Tiahuanaco?

\-Centered in southern Lake Titicaca Basin

\-Capital and ceremonial center has population of 40,000 with characteristics of sunken temples and large stone sculptures

Tiahuanaco architecture technology?

Very large basalt and sandstone blocks were transported by pushing round stones rollers and timber logs

Tiahuanaco metallurgy?

\-First to develop bronze in the Americas

\-Used bronze clamps in architecture made by melting and pouring bronze into carved “I”s in building blocks

How is bronze made?

Copper and zinc

Huari?

\-Had urban administrative centers with 100's of storage facilities in highlands and coast

\-Bureaucracy

\-Studies of these serve to compare and understand the effects of modern crowding in cities

End of Tiahuanaco and Huari (middle horizon)?

\-El Nino

\-Evidence of human/animal sacrifices to appease the gods.

What civilization occurred during the late intermediate period?

Chimu State (North coast)

What is Chan Chan?

\-Capital of Chimu with population of 50,000 over 9 square miles

\-Had extensive irrigation canals linking river valleys and a large sunken garden

Chimu split inheritane?

\-”rule of split inheritance”

\-Other relatives got the late kings palace and the new king had to make a new palace and conquer new land

\-Had 9 palaces

Chimu architecture?

\-Used Moche labor taxation

\-Adobe plastered + decorated with clay

\-Dry desert conditions preserved the mud and clay

Chimu material culture?

\-Stirrup spouts

\-Vessels that made animal noises

Chimu metallurgy?

Gold and silver ceremonial knives with deity (from pacific islands)