Psyc Forensics Chapter 2 Exam 1

When did a partnership between law enforcement and psychology began?

• Louis Terman - First in 1917

• Some early contributions: cognitive/aptitude testing of applicants

• In 1968= viable profession in US, bc Martin Reiser= full-time psychologist by the LAPD

What did Martin Reiser do for the LAPD and psychology?

• 1968= Reiser: advised negotiations for hostages, began debriefing for LEOs involved in shootings, trained field servants to spot early signs of stress, and developed high-profile cases such as hillside

What was included in the 20th and 21st century books and journal articles on police psychology?

• Works of screening candidates for law enforcement positions, coping with stress in policing, police culture, police corruption, police suicide and relationship problems, the legitimate use of force, and women in policing, among other topics

The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) established a speciality board to serve as an avenue for psychologists to become certified in this field. What all does it intel?

• Founded institute to teach attorneys, judges, detectives about using hypnosis to get info, reliability has been changed

• Recognition: Police & Public Safety Psychology (PPSP) was recognized as a speciality by APA in 2013

• Encouraged APA accredited doctoral programs in clinical Psychology to offer drugs

What does the IACP-PPSS established guidelines for police psychological service cover?

• Pre-employment psychological & fitness-for-duty evaluations, officer-involved shootings, and peer emotional support for crisis

What is Preemployment psychological screening?

• Occurs when psychologists evaluate whether a person can be hired

• Psychological screening= mandated in at least 38 states

  • There’s about 100,000 every year

What is the fitness-for -duty evaluations (FFDEs) ?

• Psychologists evaluate a po po’s ability to keep working

• Often occurs after stressful experiences in personal or job life

What is police culture?

• The rules, attitudes, beliefs and practices thought to be accepted among police as an occupational group

Why is law enforcement unique?

• Face very hostile or dangerous situations

• Have POWER (A “Power Trip”)

Police officers tend to develop and maintain an occupational culture that values control, authority, solidarity and isolation. Law enforcement has often been characterized as highly structured, paramilitary, tight knit, and bureaucratic. What ways do they develop an occupational culture?

• Some= strictly by the book

• Some= flexible

• Coping mechanism critical for stress

• May have "subcultures"

  • Some= different style of policing

what is the thin blue line?

The concept of the police as the line which keeps society from descending into violent chaos.

In 2020, two officers were arraigned and charged with simple assault after pushing a 75 year old man down, falling backward, hitting his head, and blood began to flow. How did fellow officers react?

At the courtroom= Officers walked out & crowd cheered

Police cultures may vary in terms of style, values, purpose, and mission of the organization itself. Culture may vary according to rank. What does this cause?

• Officers depends on one another

  • Much more than in other occupations

How would people who enter the field of police psychology benefit from ride-along programs?

• Gives police psychologists understanding & insights of LEO’s daily lives

What is Job Analysis?

• Process of identifying/analyzing how, where, why a particular job is done and everything that relates to the job

• Identify the skills, abilities, knowledge, and psychological chars needed

What happens if a good job analysis is not accomplished?

• Psychologists does Not know what to look for/ measure

how are job analyses conducted?

• Interviews & questionnaires; direct observations

• Understand day-to-day necessities

• Know chars desired

What characteristics for police officers are revealed during job analyses?

• Good judgement

• Decision-making

• Interpersonal

• Solid memory

• Observative

• Communication

• Integrity & Trustworthiness

• Emotional stability

• Calm under pressure

Police psychologists who asses candidates should also be aware of the particular requirements for officers of different type of agencies. What is an example?

Officers in special units for victims of SA= Need SA training

What is pre-employment and post-offer psychological evaluations ?

• At least 38 states mandate psyc evals for police

  • Usually= personality measure and interviews

  • No interfering mental or emotional issues

  • Catch risky behaviors

The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) Police Psychological Services Section has developed guidelines for police psychologists who conduct pre-employment psychological evaluations. what does the guideline include?

• Recommended standards for examiner qualifications, conflict-of-interest issues, and informed consent recs for police who undergo the examination

  • Suggests: what should be included in the eval

What are intelligence tests?

• They did not provide effective measure of officers’ fitness

  • high or low intelligence =/= good LEO

    • College edu = Good communication

What is screening in and screening out?

• Law enforcement agencies want police psychologist to get good LEOs

  • Screen Out = those unfit

What can get an officer screened out?

• Screening out= Easier process bc they show:

  • Poor judgement/ common sense, stress tolerance

  • Rule breaker, out of control, unsafe

What do screening in procedures do?

• Try to identify:

  • Successful policing traits

  • Ppl hope police psychologists can rank candidates, but lil evidence to suggest that they have reached this

What is validity?

• Addresses the question:

  • "Does the test or inventory measure what it is designed to measure?"

  • Does the measure, measure what it claims to measure

What is inventory?

Typically self-administer, is a list of items (Questions or Statements) that describes behavior, interests, and attitudes

What is a Test?

A standardized set of questions or other items designed to evaluate knowledge or skills

What is concurrent validity?

• Does the measure identify someone's current performance?

  • Degree a tests/ inventory identifies their current performance

How do psychologist develop a concurrently valid inventory?

• Psychologists should perform:

  • Personality assessment and compare results of good vs bad police

    • Want good police personality

What is the potential drawback of concurrently valid inventory?

• Ignores the imp psycl chars police hired but dropped bc of problems

  • So it misses info

What is predictive validity?

• How well does measure predict someone's future performance

  • Valuable but difficult to asses bc of time period

What is Face (or content) validity?

• Does measure appear relevant to what it claims to measure on its face?

Why is face validity important?

Law ppl= have more faith in measure

What is the commonly used inventories in police screening?

1. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-revised (MMPI-2) and MMPI-3

   a. MMPI- the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory- Revised-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF)

2. The Inward Personality Inventory (IPI) and IPI2

3. The California Psychological Inventory (CPI 260 and CPI 434)

4. The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI)

5. The NEO Personality Inventory- Revised (NEO PI-R)

6. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire- Fifth Edition (16-PF)

What is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Revised (MMPI-2)?

• Self-administered personality inventory used for:

  • Law enforcement screening, most= preselection screening

    • Originally for psyc/ behavior disorders

• It predicts police performances but—

  • Should be accompanied by other factors (background checks, oral board examinations, aptitude tests, and prior LE experience)

What is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Revised-Restructured Form (MMPI)?

• Published in 2008

• Somewhat stronger measure than MMPI-2 for predicting LEO performance

  • Tho police psycs still prefer MMPI-2

What is a Fitness for Duty Evaluation (FFDE)?

• After stressful event= eval for their fitness for duty

• Fitness for Duty Evaluation (FFDE) can be mandated after critical incident:

  • A fatal shooting

• May be required if concerning behaviors:

  • Harassing/ abusing ppl with firearm, variations in mood & irritability, talk of suicide, or being irresponsible

Does a psychologist have to explain results of a Fitness for Duty Evaluation (FFDE) to a LEO?

• No, psychologist must balance assessment with confidentially

  • The confidentiality limits must be explained bc the agency owns the report

What does the Fitness for Duty Evaluation (FFDE) usually include?

• Psychological measures used, determination of Fitness for Duty Evaluation (FFDE), functional limitations of LEO

What are the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP's) Recommendations for psychologists conducting the Fitness for Duty Evaluation (FFDE)?

• To include:

  • Performance evals, commendations, testimonials, reports of any internal affairs investigation, pre-employment psychological screening, formal citizen/ public complaints, use-of-force incidents, officer-involved shootings, civil claims, disciplinary actions, incident reports of any triggering events, medical/psychological treatment records, or other supporting or relevant documentation

• Recommends that only validated tests be used

What is a special unit Evaluation?

• Psyc assessments are done as standard procedure for members of special teams to see if they are psychologically fit to undergo high-stress situations

  • Ex: special weapons and tactics team (SWATs) and tactical response teams (TRTs); undercover agents; and narcotics, internal affairs, and crisis/ hostage negotiation teams

    • Very lil research to validate use of assessments in special team selection

What is Psychological Evulations for Police Special Assignments (PEPSA)?

• Intended to ensure members can handle the job

  • Bc Special Units deal with high-risk tasks, barricaded persons, hostage situations, heavily armed offenders, terrorist acts, and suicidal persons.

What are psychological intervention activities ?

• Police psychologists offer support to ppl who experience traumatic events and interview in self-harm

How do police Psychology handle stress management?

• Earliest police psychologists= called to identify & relieve stress

  • Standard vocab: Stressors: burnout, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and critical incident trauma

  • Psychologists offered stress management and crisis intervention training, hostage negotiation training, domestic violence workshops, and substance abuse and alcohol treatment.

What aspects of police work can lead to stress?

• Shift work, exposure to violence, suffering, and tragedy, etc.

• Greater level of public scrutiny

• Policing communities with very low trust in police

What is organizational stress?

• Emotional/ stressful effects of policies/ practices of the police department have on the officer

  • Ex: poor pay, excessive paperwork, insufficient training, inadequate equipment, weekend duty, shift work, inconsistent discipline or rigid enforcement of rules and policies, limited promotional opportunities, poor supervision and administrative support, and poor relationships with supervisors or colleagues.

    • Rural departments= limited training, old equipment, lack of proper resources, and outdated technology.

  • antagonistic subcultures

  • investigated by an Internal Affairs (IA)

What is Excessive shift work?

• Excessive shift work causes:

  • more errors in judgment & stress

  • Some work more than 14 hours a day daily, and some "moonlight" for extra income.

    • interfere with sleep/ eating habits, social/ family activities & responsibilities

      • lead to isolation

What is organization structure?

• Includes: office politics, lack of effective consultation, nonparticipation in decision making, and restrictions on behavior (You do as your told)

  • Most prevalent/ frustrating source of stress for LEOs

What is Task-related stress?

• Stressors include:

  • inactivity & boredom; situations requiring the use of force; responsibility of protecting others; the use of discretion; the fear that accompanies danger to oneself and colleagues; dealing with violent or disrespectful, uncivil individuals; making critical decisions; frequent exposure to death; continual exposure to people in pain or distress; and the constant need to keep one's emotions under close control.

What is emotional labor?

• Police are expected to stay calm

• Ex: Neutral, solid, and controlled facial expressions

What is emotional regulation?

• LEOs expected to switch between emotional and neutral responses

  • sometimes desire "human" response Ex: The death of a loved one

What is surface acting?

• Suppressing emotions and faking the appropriate emotion that the situation demands (e.g., anger or sadness)

What is emotional dissonance?

• The cause of surface acting

• Emotional dissonance= Bad for mental health and well-being.

Give examples of stressful assignments for police officers?

• Stressful assignments:

  • Undercover duty or drug raids

  • Air- or blood-borne diseases (e.g., spread by terrorists), exposure to toxic or hazardous materials or natural occurring diseases such as COVID-19.

What is role conflict?

• Can cause task-related stress

• Role Conflict: being an all in one→ law enforcer, social worker, counselor, and public servant

  • Interaction with mentally ill ppl requires special skills

What is Community- oriented policing (COP)?

• Police/ citizens work more closely in positive ways

  • New Pressures, but may be better than "law-&-order" policing

What are critical incidents?

• Emergencies/ disasters that are nonroutine and unanticipated

  • Ex: Active shooter; hostage with kids

    • Very stressful bc they break down the perceived control

What psychological, neurological, and physical symptoms in responding officers can critical incidents cause ?

• Immediate: Confusion, disorientation, chest pain, sweating, rapid heart rate and memory loss

• Delayed: Restlessness, chronic fatigue, sleep disturbances, nightmares, irritability, depression, problems in concentration, and alcohol or illegal substances abuse

What is Pre-incident education ?

• Desensitization process

• Immunize them by teaching LEOs to anticipate and understand how traumatic events may affect them

What are some Critical incidents most likely to cause high levels of stress?

• The suicide or fatal shooting of a colleague, the accidental killing or wounding of a citizen by the police officer, death or serious injury to a child or multiple children, events that draw high media coverage, and events involving a number of deaths, such as major fires, terrorist bombings, or far-reaching natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, or tornadoes.

What is External stress?

• Frustration with: courts, prosecutor's office, criminal justice process, correctional system, etc (Unjust)

  • Every 100 felony arrests, 43 are typically dismissed or not prosecuted.

• Police-citizen relationships

• Immigration

What is personal stress?

• Stressors involving: Martial relationships, health problems, addictions, peer group pressures, feelings of helplessness & depression, discrimination, sexual harassment, and lack of accomplishment

According to Finn and Tomz(1997), what is the most common sources of spousal stress?

• Shift work and overtime

• Their cynicism, superiority, or no feelings

• Fear they will be hurt or killed

• The high expectations of their children

• Avoidance, teasing, or harassment of children because of their parent's job

• The presence of a gun in the home

Peer counseling programs are available in a # of departments, but many police officers prefer to work with mental health profs who are knowledgeable about police work but who are not police officers themselves. Why is this?

• LEOs don’t wanna talk to their homies bc it is unacceptable within police culture

What is Post-Shooting Traumatic Reactions (PSTRs)?

• Emotions/ psychological responses after LEO shoots a person in the line of duty -

  • Esp. if victim dies

About how many people are shot and killed by police officers?

• ~1,000 ppl each year.

What should police do after a critical incident such as a shooting?

• Immediately contact: on-duty post-shooting peer support team members & the police psychologist.

Why do police officers sometimes decide to not seek help after a critical incident?

• "mental help" = weakness, cowardice, and lack of ability to do the job.

What is a Companion officer?

A trusted colleague who also has been through an officer-involved shooting

It is standard procedure at most agencies for the involved officer to immediately be placed on administrative leave for 3 days or longer. During that leave, it is usually common practice to recommend that the officer see the police psychologist for what?

critical incident stress debriefings (CISDs)

What is a critical incident stress debriefings (CISDs) ?

• 24 - 72 hours after critical incident

• A single group meeting for 2 - 3 hours

  • Some research= debriefing is bad

What factors may result in Police suicide?

• Psychological reactions to critical incidents

• Relationship difficulties

• Internal investigations

• Financial difficulties

• Frustration and discouragement

• Easy access to weapons

  • Alcohol abuse= prominent role in suicide risks & rigid cognitive thinking may also be a significant factor

What is Cognitive rigidity?

• The inability to switch from thinking about things one way to another way

What are hostage incidents?

Police and public safety psychologists= consultanting, training or assisting for hostage-taking incidents

What is a hostage situation?

• Char by: a person(s) holding victims against their will

  • used to obtain material gain, deliver a sociopolitical message, or achieve personal advantage

What is a Barricade situation?

• Person has fortified/ barricaded themselves in structure; threatens violence

What falls under the hostage -taking category?

• Abductions, kidnappings, school captive takings, and some acts of terrorism

What are Relationship driven hostage situations?

• Perceived relationship difficulties/ resentment

  • 80% of all hostage situations

Name the 4 categories of hostage takers:

1. Political terrorists

2. The Hostage taker who committed a crime

3. Prisoners

4. Persons with Mental Disorders

What are Political terrorists?

• Take hostages to gain publicity for their cause,

  • Most difficult to deal with bc outrageous demands

What are the four basic reasons Political terrorists take hostages?

1. Show citizen that the government cannot protect them

2. Media coverage

3. Hope that Gov will overreact: Excessive Restrictions

4. Release of tourist members (prisoners)

Why does hostage taker who committed a crime take hostages?

• Usually trapped while committing the crime (Ex: robbery; domestic violence) and trying to negotiate escape route

Why do prisoners take hostages?

• To protest conditions within the correctional facility

Why do persons with mental disorders take hostages?

• To get a sense of control over their life

What is Crisis negotiation?

• Similar to hostage negotiation but more general. A Broad range of situations and strategies—

  • Ex: Talking down a person from jumping

  • The perpetrators~ Highly emotional, under the influence of drugs or alcohol, suicidal, violent, stressed, or struggling with psychological disorders

Name the 3 phases of crisis negotiations:

1. Pre-incident phase

2. Intra-incident Phase

3. Post-incident Phase

During crisis negotiation what is done during the pre-incident phase?

• Psychologists may provide screening & selection of negotiators

• Train negotiators on imp psyc aspects

• Give strategies for risk assessment

During crisis negotiation what is done during the intra-incident phase?

• Psychologist may monitor the negotiations

• Offer advice on the state of the person in crisis

• Help negotiators influence the person's behaviors and intentions

During crisis negotiation what is done during the post-incident phase?

• Psychologist may give stress management strategies, debriefing, and counseling services to the crisis management team.

  • Ideally, this is a dif psyc than who worked the incident.

What are performance appraisal systems?

• Design/ dev of policies, processes, and instruments for measurement and feedback of individual job performance

What are the gender and Racial/ethic issues of police psychology?

• Before 1970s, ONLY white!!

• Female officers restricted to Female arrestees & interviewing kids

• Common perception= Police is a MANLY bc strong and powerful

What is Occupational socialization?

• Learning of attitudes, values, and beliefs of a particular occupational group

• Worden (1993) found very few differences between male and female officers in their attitudes toward policing

How are female officers better than male officers in the police department?

Better at defusing situations; less likely to use excessive force; better communication/ social skills

What is shooter bias?

• An Implicit racial bias among LEOs to shoot Black ppl

• Police use greater force with black suspects

• Black suspects= 5 times more likely to be killed

• Bias against groups— Racial stereotypes

  • Is culturally ingrained

What is dispatcher information?

• Info given to officers by dispatchers= extremely imp in ambiguous situations

  • Ex: Johnson et al. (2018) Tested how dispatch info influenced the decision to shoot.

    • Incorrect dispatch info= Shoot unarmed men

What happened in the Timir Rice case of the 12 year old boy?

• Timir was throwing snowballs & playing toy handgun in a park

• 911 caller said juvenile and prob fake gun

  • Dispatcher did NOT tell officers and one officer shot Tamir bc he “Looked 20”

    • Black boys perceived as older/ less innocent than white boys

What is Nonfatal Excessive force- Excessive force?

• Level of force exceeds what is considered justifiable under the circumstances

What are examples of threats or nonfatal force?

• Threatening to use force

• Handcuffing

• Pushing, grabbing, hitting, or kicking

• Chemical or pepper spray

• Electroshock weapon

• Pointing a gun

• etc.(such as threatening to arrest)

The National Institute of Justice released a report summarizing what is known about police use of force. What did the report find?

• The report found :

  • LEOs use force infrequently

  • Force typically occurs at lower end of spectrum (grabbing, pushing, shoving)

  • Typically occurs when police are trying to make an arrest and suspect is resisting