AP Psych Unit 2 vocab

Perception

Process of interpreting sensory information to understand our environment.

Transduction

When one converts information from their environment through sensation into ideas through perception

Bottom-Up Processing

Use of sense receptors to take in energy and register raw data. The act of sensing.

Top-Down Processing

Use of a higher order of focus taking things in with our perceptive abilities. The act of perceiving.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences.

Perceptual Sets

Mental predispositions or expectations that influence perception.

Signal Detection Theory

The theory predicting how and when we perceive stimuli among all the background noise. Stresses that it is near impossible to have one single type of absolute threshold for all, everyone is unique.

Subliminal Perception

The ability of the brain to process sensory information without conscious awareness

Gestalt Psychology

A school of thought that focuses on how the human brain perceives the world as a whole, rather than individual parts. The key principles include closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity.

Retinal Disparity

The slight difference in the images projected onto the left and right retinas due to the eyes' different positions.

Convergence

The inward turning of the eyes to focus on a nearby object. The brain uses the degree of convergence to estimate the distance of the object.

Relative Clarity

Objects that appear clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer than those that appear blurry or less detailed.

Relative Size

Objects that appear larger are perceived as closer than those that appear smaller.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues that can be determined with the use of one eye like linear perspective.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that must incorporate both eyes like retinal disparity and convergence.

Texture Gradient

The gradual change in the appearance of a surface's texture from coarse (near) to fine (far).

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge towards a vanishing point as they recede into the distance.

Interposition

Objects that partially block or overlap other objects are perceived as closer.

Stroboscopic Movement

A series of still images presented in rapid succession creates the illusion of continuous motion.

Phi Phenomenon

The perception of movement created by rapidly presenting two or more stationary stimuli in succession.

Proximity

Perceiving objects that are close to one another as paired up with one another, rather than separate or individual.

Similarity

Objects of similar color, size, or shape are often seen as part of a pattern.

Closure

In the realm of Gestaltism, it is believed that we cannot accept incompleteness. Our sensory information is taken over by perception to see a "whole" object even when none exists.

Continuity

Items that continue a pattern or direction tend to be grouped together as a part of a pattern.

Feature Detector

Specialized brain cells that only respond to particular elements in the visual field such as movement or lines of specific orientation.

Perceptual Constancy

A tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation.

Shape Constancy

Tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite any change in shape of the image of the object on the retina.

Perceptual Generalization

The strong tendency to see what we expect to see, even if our expectation conflicts with external reality.

Superposition

Monocular distance cue in which one object, by partly blocking a second object, is perceived as being closer.

Elevation

Visual cue that the higher an object is positioned on a horizontal plane, the farther away it appears.

Auto Kinetic Illusion

The perception that a stationary object is actually moving.

Motion Parallax

Objects beyond the fixation point appear to move with you; objects in front of the fixation point appear to move backward. The further they are from the fixation point, the faster they seem to move.

Pop-Out Phenomenon

When a stimulus draws your eye, you can't help but notice. It demands your attention.

Physical Illusions

Due to distortion of information reaching our receptor cells, can logically figure out. Caused by disturbances to light or sensory signals in the eye.

Perceptual Illusions

Due to misleading cues in stimuli that give rise to inaccurate or impossible perceptions. Caused by the brain's processing of unusual or ambiguous visual information

Concepts

Mental categories or groups used to organize objects, events, or ideas based on shared characteristics.

Prototypes

The most typical or best example of a concept that comes to mind.

Heuristic

Enabling a person to discover or learn something for themselves.

Representative Heuristic

A shortcut in which you compare something to see how much it fits a prototype.

Availability Heuristic

Basing our judgement regarding the likelihood of an event on how readily information comes to our mind.

Anchoring Heuristic

When we start with some initial estimate or "anchor" that we in turn may use to influence our estimate.

Conjunction Fallacy

The belief that two events are more likely to occur than just a single event.

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that random events are influenced by previous outcomes, leading to the expectation that a particular outcome is "due" after a series of contrary results.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Involves the tendency to continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because of the resources already committed, even when it is no longer rational to do so.

Divergent Thinking

Key component of creativity, involving the exploration of multiple possible solutions or perspectives, rather than converging on a single "correct" answer.

Convergent Thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by narrowing down options.

Functional Fixedness

Cognitive barrier to creativity, in which an individual becomes fixated on the typical use of an object, hindering their ability to see alternative applications.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution. Contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Intuition

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought. Contrasts with explicit/conscious reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Generalizations used to connect or lead to specific instances.

Inductive Reasoning

Specific instances are used to draw conclusions about general rules.

Compensatory Decision

A decision-making process where the positive attributes of an option can compensate for its negative attributes. Involves rationally weighing out choices, used in high-stakes decisions.

Non-Compensatory Decision

A decision-making process where negative attributes cannot be offset by positive ones. Involves irrational thinking and is typical of low-stakes decisions.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems in a way that has been successful in the past, which can hinder our ability to find novel solutions.

Parallel Processing

The brain's ability to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously.

Connectionism

A cognitive model that explains mental processes through networks of interconnected units, similar to neural networks in the brain.

Priming

Involves exposure to stimuli that unconsciously influence our subsequent thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Framing

Refers to the way in which information is presented, which can significantly impact our perceptions and decisions.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall and describe.

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior unconsciously, such as skills or habits.

Episodic Memory

Type of explicit memory for specific events and experiences

Short-Term Memory

Originally the sort of memories that occupy a small, brief storage space for recent thoughts and experiences.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

A cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for complex tasks like reasoning, learning, and decision-making.

Long-Term Potentiation

A process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, is a biological process for memory.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information. Space, time, and frequency. Connects to implicit, or unintentional memory.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Connects with explicit, or intentional memory.

Shallow Processing

A level of processing that involves focusing on surface features, such as appearance or sound, rather than meaning.

Deep Processing

A level of processing that emphasizes the meaning of information, leading to better retention.

Flashbulb Memory

A crystal-clear memory of an emotionally significant event.

Encoding

Getting information to our brain and finding meaning.

Visual Encoding

The process of encoding information based on visual elements, such as images or spatial relationships.

Acoustic Encoding

The process of encoding information through sound, particularly the sound of words or auditory patterns.

Semantic Encoding

Conceptual encoding, taking in information in connection to the context in which it is presented within. Reflects the intended structure and meaning of words, numbers, etc.

Elaborative Encoding

Taking in new information contextually and already matching it to previously known material, initiation of masking. The first steps towards assimilation vs. accommodation.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device that associates information with specific locations in a familiar space.

Chunking

Information encoding strategy that combines smaller pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

Spacing Effect

Distributing learning over time leads to better long-term retention as it allows time for memory consolidation and strengthens neural connections.

Serial Position Effect

Predicts that information presented at the beginning of a list or the end of a list will be more memorable than information presented in the middle of the list.

Primacy Effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list better. Occurs because early items receive more rehearsal and processing.

Recency Effect

Tendency to remember items at the end of a list better. Occurs because later items are still active in working memory.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, but very brief recording of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Type of memory that stores visual information.

Echoic Memory

Type of memory that stores auditory information.

Phonological Loop

Helps us hold and work with sounds and words in our minds. Allows us to remember and manipulate spoken information, such as a phone number or something we just heard.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Handles visual and spatial information. It helps with tasks like visualizing objects, navigating spaces, and remembering the locations of items.

Declarative Memory

Includes semantic memory, or facts, and episodic memory, or events.

Non-Declarative Memory

Includes procedural memory, or skills, and priming.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Also known as ROTE rehearsal; involves repeating information over and over to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Rehearsal technique that involves associating new information with existing knowledge to create meaning.

Self-Reference Effect

Suggests that information related to oneself is better remembered than other types of information.

Retrograde Amnesia

Involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

Anterograde Amnesia

Involves the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

Infantile Amnesia

Refers to the inability to recall memories from early childhood, usually before the age of 3 or 4.

Alzheimer's Disease

Progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory and cognitive function.

Recall

Memory that can be accessed without cues.

Recognition

Memory that relies on retrieval cues.

Context-Dependent Memory

Enhances retrieval when in the same environmental setting as during encoding.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Boosts recall when your current emotional state matches the mood during encoding.

State-Dependent Memory

Links retrieval to the physical condition or state of your body during encoding.