hdfs ch 7 memory

Memory

the retention of information over time

basic processes required for memory

encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

getting information into memory

storage

retaining information over time

retrieval

taking information out of storage

Schema theory

people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds

Scheme

mental frameworks that organize concepts and information
Influence the way people encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
Often gaps are filled in when memories are retrieved

Except for memory of perceptual-motor actions, most of young infants’ conscious memories are

short-lived

Newborns and even fetuses show

a limited type of memory

Infants can remember

perceptual motor information

Implicit memory

memory without conscious recollection

Explicit memory

conscious memory of facts and experiences (Infants do not show explicit memory until after 6 months)

Most adults can remember little, if anything, from

the first 3 years of life

By 8-9 years of age

children’s memory of events at 3 years of age begins to significantly fade away (immaturity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of the brain plays a role)

Memory improves considerably after

infancy

Long-term memory

relatively permanent and unlimited

Short-term memory

retention of information for up to 30 seconds without rehearsal of the information

how can ppl retain information longer

using rehersal

Short-term memory increases

during childhood
rehearsal and speed of information processing are important

who uses rehearsal more

older children

Working memory

where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, problem solving, and comprehending language

working memory develops slowly

8 years old can only hold in memory half the items that adults can

Long-term memory is relatively

permanent, storing huge amounts of information for a long time

autobiographical memory

significant events and experiences

Young children’s memories increasingly take on more

autobiographical characteristics (culture influences)

Children’s long-term memory improves more

as they move into middle and late childhood years

Mental strategies can be used to improve

the processing of information

Rehersal (repetition) works better for

short-term memory

mental strategy

creating mental images for remembering verbal information, this works better for older children than for younger children

Elaboration

involves engaging in more extensive processing of information
thinking of examples and personal associations

who is more likely to use elaboration spontaneously

adolescents

Knowledge influences

what people notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information
affects the ability to remember, reason, and solve problems

Expertise in a particular area leads to

better memory of information pertaining to that area

children organize (chunks) the information into

meaningful subgroups based on their expertise

two important cognitive resources linked with aging

Working memory and processing speed

when does working memory start to decline

from 65 to 89 years of age

In older adults, working memory has

plasticity - can be improved through training and exercise

Explanations of decline include

less efficient inhibition in focus of irrelevant information, and increased distractibility

declines in

processing speed and attention may also play a role

the “n-back” task

a commonly used working memory test
repeat back the “nth” item back in a list of items presented in serial order

Implicit memory

memory of skills and routine procedures performed automatically—is less likely than explicit memory to be adversely affected by aging

explicit memory

the conscious memory of facts and experience
declarative memory
Can be subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory

Episodic memory

retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings

Autobiographical memories are stored as

episodic memories

Reminiscence bump

adults remember more events for the ages of from about 10 to 30 years
Particularly strong for happy memories
Believe preserved in part because they are central to identity
Remote memories not as personally relevant fade with passage of time

Semantic memory

knowledge about the world

examples of semantic memory

Fields of expertise, general academic knowledge, “everyday knowledge,” meanings of words, names of famous individuals, important places, and common things

Older adults often take longer to

retrieve semantic information, but they are usually successful

Source memory

ability to remember where one learned something
Contexts may include physical setting, emotional context, or identity of speaker

Failures in source memory

increase with age

Prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future
Some decline may occur with age

Thinking

manipulating and transforming information in memory to reason, reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions

Concepts

ognitive grouping of similar objects, events, people, or ideas—are key aspects of infants’ cognitive development

perceptual categorization

Infants’ early categorizations
Based on similar perceptual features of objects such as size, color, movement, and parts
Not until about 7-9 months do infants form conceptual categories

when does further advances in categorization occur

in the second year of life

First concepts are

broad and global in nature

important aspect of learning for thinking

Learning to put things into the correct categories

Researchers have found large gender differences

in categories based on passionate interests

boys passionate interests

focus on vehicles, trains, machines, dinosaurs, balls

girls passionate interests

more likely to involve dress-up and books/reading

Executive function

number of higher level cognitive processes linked to development of the brain’s prefrontal cortex
Involves managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal- directed behavior and to exercise self- control

In early childhood, executive function involves

advances in cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, goal-setting, and delay of gratification
Linked to school readiness

who plays a role in executive functioning

Parents and teachers

Significant advances in executive function unfold over

middle and late childhood years

Certain key dimensions of executive function appear to be the most important for children’s cognitive development and school success:

self-control/inhibition
working memory
flexibility

Some research suggests executive function is a better predictor of

school readiness than general IQ

Executive function skills decline

in older adults

Older adults are less effective at

engaging in cognitive control (variation)

examples of ways to improve executive function

aerobic exercise, overall physical fitness, and activities such as tai chi

Executive function is increasingly thought to be involved in

health, emotion regulation, adaptation to life’s challenges, motivation, and social functioning

Critical thinking

thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence
grasping the deeper meaning of ideas, keeping an open mind about different approaches and perspectives, and deciding for oneself what to believe or do

important aspect of critical thinking

Mindfulness
Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible

Children who engage in mindfulness can improve

a number of cognitive and socioemotional skills

Contemplative science

the study of how various types of mental and physical training might enhance development

Older adolescents are described as more

competent in decisoin making than younger adolescents
more likely to generate different options, examine situations from variety of perspectives, anticipate consequences, and consider the credibility of sources

Adolescents’ willingness to engage in risky behavior depends on

social context

More risky decisions are made when

alcohol, drugs, or other temptations are readily available
Presence of peers makes risky decisions more likely

cognitive neuroscience and aging

use it or lose it

Older adults benefit from activities such as

reading books, doing crossword puzzles, and attending lectures and concerts

Disuse may promote

atrophy of cognitive skills

Cognitive training and improving physical fitness can improve the

cognitive skills of many older adults

Cognitive improvements often occur only

when there is a substantial amount of sustained effort practice

Metcognition

Involves several dimensions of executive function, such as planning, evaluation, and self-regulation
Helps people perform cognitive tasks more effectively

Children’s understanding of their memory abilities is

relatively poor at the beginning of the elementary school years but improves considerably by age 11-12

Theory of mind

awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others

Children’s theory of mind is linked to

cognitive processes

From 18 months to 3 years, children begin to understand three mental states:

perceptions
emotions
desires

Only beyond the preschool years do children begin to understand that

behavior do not necessarily reflect thoughts or feelings
move from understanding beliefs can be false to realizing the same event can be open to multiple interpretations

There are individual differences in the ages

when children reach certain milestones

what is linked to development of a theory of mind

executive function, involving goal-directed behavior and self-control

other factors in the development of theory of mind

advances in prefrontal cortex functioning, engaging in pretend play, and various aspects of social interaction

Children who have an advanced theory of mind are

more popular with peers and have better social skills

Importance of interpersonal relationships motivates adolescents to

understand not only their own but others’ minds as well
More likely than children to engage in recursive thinking—thinking about what other people are thinking about
Better at understanding and predicting others’ behaviors
Better at interpreting others’ feelings and motives even when they are not directly observable

Adult life calls on the theory of mind to

cope with challenges of the social world
Especially, theory of mind accomplishments involving belief, desire, knowledge, intention, and perspective taking
Do not always use these skills in everyday life—such as when failing to take into account others’ perspectives

theory of mind abilities decline

in older adults
related to decline in other cognitive skills and changes in the brain’s prefrontal cortex