Earth Science Midterm 9th Grade Regents NY

Sunspots

Dark areas on the Sun that indicate increased solar activity.

Sunspot Activity Effect

An increase in sunspots leads to more solar flares, CMEs, and geomagnetic storms.

Solar Flare

A sudden release of energy caused by the realignment of the Sun’s magnetic fields.

Coronal Mass Ejection (CME)

A large eruption of charged particles and magnetic fields from the Sun.

Geomagnetic Storm

A disturbance in Earth’s magnetic field caused by solar particles.

Auroras

Caused when charged particles collide with gases in Earth’s atmosphere near the poles.

Solar Maximum

The period of greatest sunspot, flare, and CME activity in the Sun’s 11

Solar Minimum

The period of lowest solar activity and fewest sunspots.

Big Bang Theory

The theory that the universe began from a hot, dense state and has been expanding.

Redshift

When light from an object moving away is stretched to longer wavelengths.

Hubble’s Law

The farther a galaxy is from Earth, the faster it is moving away.

Expanding Universe

The universe is expanding because space itself is stretching.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

Leftover radiation from the early universe that supports the Big Bang.

Hydrogen and Helium Abundance

The large amount of hydrogen and helium supports the Big Bang theory.

Nuclear Fusion

The process where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing energy.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

The formation of elements inside stars through nuclear fusion.

Low

Mass Star Life Cycle

High

Mass Star Life Cycle

Supernova

A massive explosion of a star that forms elements heavier than iron.

Stardust Theory

Humans are made of elements formed in stars and supernovae.

Gravity and Distance

As distance decreases, gravitational force increases.

Orbital Speed

Planets closer to the Sun move faster.

Orbital Period

Planets closer to the Sun have shorter orbital periods.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Gravitational force depends on mass and distance between objects.

Kepler’s Second Law

Planets move faster when closer to the Sun and slower when farther away.

Kepler’s Third Law

The square of a planet’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of its orbital distance.

Moon Phases

Caused by the Moon’s revolution around Earth.

Waxing Moon

The visible portion of the Moon is increasing.

Waning Moon

The visible portion of the Moon is decreasing.

Solar Eclipse

Occurs when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth.

Lunar Eclipse

Occurs when Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.

Why Eclipses Are Rare

The Moon’s orbit is tilted, so alignment does not occur every month.

Spring Tides

Occur when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned.

Neap Tides

Occur when the Sun and Moon are at right angles.

Cause of Seasons

Seasons are caused by Earth’s 23.5° axial tilt, not distance from the Sun.

Plate Tectonics Theory

Earth’s lithospheric plates move over the asthenosphere.

Divergent Boundary

Plates move apart and create new crust.

Convergent Boundary

Plates collide, causing mountains, volcanoes, or subduction.

Transform Boundary

Plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes.

Seafloor Spreading

New ocean crust forms at mid

Magnetic Striping

Alternating magnetic patterns record seafloor spreading.

Fossil Evidence

Fossils like Glossopteris show continents were once connected.

Ring of Fire

A region with frequent earthquakes and volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean.

Planetesimals

Small rocky objects that collided to form planets.

Earth’s Formation

Earth formed through repeated collisions of planetesimals.

Moon Formation Hypothesis

The Moon formed from debris after a Mars

Hadean Eon

Earliest period of Earth’s history with heavy bombardment.

Why Early Rocks Are Rare

Early rocks were destroyed by heat, impacts, and plate tectonics.

Meteorites

Provide evidence about Earth’s early formation.

Earth’s Layers

Crust, mantle, outer core, inner core.

Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of Earth.

Asthenosphere

The semi

Thermal Convection

Heat

Hot Mantle Material

Hot material is less dense and rises.

Cool Mantle Material

Cool material is more dense and sinks.

Convection and Plate Motion

Mantle convection moves tectonic plates.

Subduction

Process where denser crust sinks into the mantle.