Biotechnology Final

Polymerase

Key enzymes that copy strands of DNA during DNA replication to create new strands of nucleotides.

Biotechnology

A broad area of science involving many different disciplines designed to use living organisms or their products to perform valuable industrial or manufacturing processes or applications that will solve problems.

Transformation

The process by which bacteria take in DNA from surroundings. During gene song what transfers DNA into the host cell.

Recombinant DNA Technology

Technique that allows DNA to be combined from different sources; also called gene of DNA splicing.

Exons

Coding sections of an RNA transcript.

Intron

Internal non coding regions or intervening regions.

Chymosin

An enzyme that curdles milk to create cheese.

Bioreactor

Cell systems that produce biologic molecules (which may include fermenters).

Antisense Technology

In a normal cell mRNA (sense strand) transcribed from DNA is then translated into a protein, it involves engineering in an antisense strand to pair with the sense strand, blocking the sense strand's ability to be translated into a protein.

Human Genome Project

Research on the function of human genes and controlling factors that regulate genes, made up of approximately 20,000 genes.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)

Single nucleotide variations in the gene sequence, or a type of DNA mutation; the basis of genetic variation among humans.

DNA Library

Collection of DNA fragments containing all DNA sequences in an organism’s genome; can be “screened” to isolate genes of interest.

Flavr Savr Tomato

Ripe tomatoes produce an enzyme, polygalcturose (PG) that triggers decay in the tomato, the gene was identified and sequenced and a complementary copy of the genetically modified plasmid was made. The new gene was introduced into the plant via Argobacter. The anti sense strands produced from it paired with the PG mRNA and inactivated it, producing no PG and slowing the decay of the tomato.

Golden Rice

Genetically modified rice that had been modified to produce carotene, which is converted to Vitamin-A. This is good for areas of the world where rice is a staple in their diets. Though there are concerns that the golden rice will cross breed and contaminate other species of rice, losing biodiversity.

DNA Fingerprinting

Every person’s unique set of genes that is identical in all of their cells. The variable regions of DNA are targeted and the results are based on exclusion. The two types of DNA testing are RFLP and PCR. A unique genetic identity that everyone has.

Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA)

A method of examining DNA that allows scientists to observe older DNA samples that no longer have nucleus DNA. It is passed down from one’s mother.

Restriction Enzymes

DNA cutting proteins found primarily in bacteria.

Gel Electrophoresis

Separates molecules based on their size, it’s read by comparing the sample bands to control bands. It is used to analyze DNA fingerprints.

Embryo Twinning

Splitting an embryo in half, it was the first step towards cloning animals. It only uses embryonic cells, not adult cells.

SCNT

Involved the enucealation of an egg cell, and the replacement of that nucleus with an adult somatic cell nucleus.

Reproductive Cloning

Creates a new individual with the same DNA as a previously existing individual.

Retrovirus-mediated Transgenics

Infecting mouse embryos with retroviruses before implantation.

Pronuclear Microinjection

Injecting DNA directly into the nucleus of the egg or sperm.

Embryonic Stem Cell Method

Mixing embryonic stem cells with recombinant DNA.

Sperm-mediated Transfer

Using linker proteins to attach DNA to sperm cells.

Gene Guns

Used to shoot DNA into animal cells, similar to what is done in plant biotechnology.

The Three R’s

Reduce, Replace, Refine

What are regulations in place to protect animals during testing?

The FDA requires phase testing to ensure products are safe, preclinical testing is the first step of phase testing and completed on model animals. There’s animal welfare act standards and regulations.

Why do we use animals in research?

It allows us to determine the impact of drugs on an entire organism and helps determine the safety of medical procedures and products.

Phase Testing

A statistically significant number of trials are required on cell cultures, in live animals, and on human subjects in the three-phase testing process specified by the FDA.

What are the pros and cons of using biofuels?

They’re renewable as they’re made from biomass and bio waste, which can be replenished. Unfortunately they’re not green sources, as they produce greenhouse gases.

Biofuels vs. Petroleum Fuels

Petroleum fuels require millions of years to form and aren’t renewable, while biofuels are. Though neither fuel is green they are often blended together.

1st Generation Biofuels

Also referred to as conventional biofuels, they are made of things like sugar, starch, or vegetable oil. It’s any biofuel made from a feedstock that can also be consumed as a human food. These biofuels threaten the food chain, increase carbon emissions and have intense growth requirements.

2nd Generation Biofuels

Also referred to as advanced biofuels, it’s produced from sustainable feedstock. It is not suitable for human consumption and don’t require a lot of water or fertilizer. An example is waste vegetable oil.

3rd Generation Biofuels

Category reserved for biofuels derived from algae, they are capable of much higher yields with lower resource inputs other than feedstock. It can be easily refined and can be genetically manipulated to produce a variety of fuels, though production costs are high and requires large amounts soft water, nitrogen and phosphorus to grow.

Plant Transgenesis

Gene transfer to a plant from another species.

Shotgun Cloning

Random cloning of many fragments at once; no individual gene is specifically targeted for cloning.

Attentuated Vaccine

Vaccine consisting of weakened, live organisms.

Protoplast Fusion

An injury to a plant causes a callus to form, cellulase can be used to dissolve callus cell walls, resulting in a cell without a cell wall (protoplast), protoplast fusion is when two protoplasts of different species are fused together making a hybrid plant.

Leaf Fragment Technique

Desired genes can be put into the TI plasmid,k a fragment is cut from a leaf and when the plant starts to regenerate it is cultured with Agrobacter containing the genetically modified plasmid. The plasmid DNA is then integrated into the plant’s DNA.

TI Plasmid

Tumor inducing plasmid.

Gene Guns

Metal beads are coated with desired DNA and are shot in the nucleus or chloroplast of the cell to introduce new DNA.

Chloroplast Engineering

DNA can be inserted into the nucleus or chloroplast of the plant cell, the chloroplast is often a target for genetic engineering because it’s DNA can uptake several new genes at once.

Antisense Technology

In a normal cell mRNA (sense strand) transcribed from DNA is then translated into a protein. It involves engineering in a gene to produce an antisense strand to pair with the sense strand, blocking the sense strand’s ability to be translated into a protein.

Examples of Biotechnology

Fermenation, selective breeding, antibiotics, gene cloning, genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, human genome project.

Microbal Biotechnology

Manipulation of microorganisms such as yeast and bacteria. Used to clone and produce large amounts of important proteins used in human medicine.

Agricultural Biotechnology

Plants more environmentally friendly that yield more per acre (genetically engineered). They can resist diseases, produce higher protein or vitamin content and be used to develop drugs and reduce production costs.

Animal Biotechnology

Animals as a source of medically valuable proteins. Examples include antibodies, transgenic animals, cloning and models in research.

Forensic Biotechnology

DNA fingerprinting, used for paternity cases, identifying a suspect and tracking the spread of disease.

Bioremediation

The use of biotechnology to process and degrade a variety of natural and man made substances. It particularly targets those that contribute to environmental pollution.

Aquatic Biotechnology

Raising fish or shellfish in controlled conditions to use as food sources.

Medical Biotechnology

Involved with the whole spectrum of human medicine, such as stem cell techniques and preventative treatment and diagnosis.

Regulatory Biotechnology

All activities involved in regulating the final quality of a product, this is referred to as quality assurance (QA), quality control (QC) is a part of the QA process that involves lab testing and monitoring of processes and applications to ensure consistent product standards.

Transcription

DNA is transcribed into RNA, the RNA is a copy of the DNA as that doesn’t leave the nucleus, it’s called messenger RNA (mRNA).

Translation

Translates RNA into an amino acid chain, which makes a protein, the mRNA is read by rRNA which is located in the ribosomes.

Nucleic Acids

Molecules made of nucleotide building blocks (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base). They are what make up DNA and RNA.

DNA Structure

Each molecule is made up of two strands of nucleotides joined together in a double helix. Nucleotides are held together by phosphodiesterase bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next. Each DNA strand has a 5’ end and a 3’ end. Strands are antiparallel (they run in the opposite direction).

Pathogenicity

The ability of an organism to cause disease.

Carrier

An infected individual who is capable of spreading the infectious agent to other hosts.

Nucleus

Houses the cells DNA, which directs protein synthesis via messenger RNA.

Ribosomes

Composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins and synthesize proteins according to directions from DNA. Cells that make proteins have a large number of ribosomes.

Mitochondria

Organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells intermembrane space is the narrow region between the inner and outer membranes. The Mt matrix contains mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, and many enzymes that catalyze some of the reactions of cellular respiration.

Primary Structure

The sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure

The coiling or folding of the chain, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary Structure

The overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide, resulting from interactions among R groups.

Quaternary Structure

Proteins made of more than one polypeptide.

Protein Folding

Mutations in the amino acid sequence can alter the folding of a protein and affect its function, this is caused by prions.

Directed Molecular Evolution

Way to engineer proteins by making specific changes in the nucleotide sequences of a particular gene. This can alter proteins produced by making them more or less active, it’s a quick way to introduce changes at the protein level that may never occur naturally.

Upstream Processing

Expression of the protein in the cell.

Downstream Processing

Separation of the protein from cell parts and other proteins.

Protein Purification

1. Precipitation, adding chemicals that cause the proteins to precipitate, settle out of solution.

2. Filtration, membrane filtration or dialysis.

3. Centrifugation, separates proteins from heavier cell components.

4. Chromatography, sort proteins by size or charge or by filtering them through a column filled with resin and buffer.

Genome

All of the DNA in an organism’s cells.

Transgenesis

Direct transfer of genes to plants, it can provide benefits not possible with traditional methods.

Microsatellites

1-6 nucleotide repeats found in various chromosomes. They’re used for DNA fingerprinting by PCR and often referred to as short tandem repeats (STR’s).

Short Tandem Repeats (STR)

1-6 nucleotide repeats found in various chromosomes. They’re used for DNA fingerprinting by PCR and often referred to as microsatellites.

Polypoid

Containing multiple sets of chromosomes.

Amino Acids

The building blocks for proteins.

Proteome

All of the proteins a person produces.

Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography

Proteins sorted based on their water repulsion.

Isoelectric Focusing

Separates similar proteins that are otherwise hard to separate. 2D electrophoresis separates proteins based on charge and size.

Size Exclusion

Uses gel beads as a filtering system. Larger molecules pass through more quickly and smaller ones more slowly.

Ion Exchange Chromatography

Charged proteins bind to the electrostatically-charged resin while other molecules pass through. Salt solutions can then be used to wash the proteins off the column.

Affinity Chromatography

Proteins bind reversibly to molecules called ligands like a lock and key, unbound molecules are washed out.

BT

Bacillus thurgingiensis was often used as a natural pesticide by farmers, when insects would ingest it they would die. They have since been inserted into the DNa of many plants including tomatoes, cotton, Tabaco and corn. Any use of pesticides can result in resistance.

Vector

A DNA molecules that is used as a vehicle to transfer genetic materials to the host cells, they are often plasmids.

Clone

Contains identical sets of genetic information in the nucleus of every cell in their bodies.

Ligase

An enzyme that joins together two DNA fragments by forming a covalent bond.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a solvent to create a solution (ex. salt in water).

mRNA

Carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosomes.

tRNA

Delivers specific amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis.

Missense Mutation

A DNA change that results in different amino acids being encoded at a particular position in the resulting protein.

Point Mutations

Changes to a single nucleotide base in DNA or RNA.

Frame shift Mutation

The insertion or deletion of nucleotide bases in numbers that are not multiples of three.

Silent Mutation

A point mutation where one nucleotide in a genetic sequence is replaced with another nucleotide, altering the corresponding codon to another codon for the same amino acid.

Nonsense Mutation

Occurs in DNA when a sequence change gives rise to a stop codon rather than a codon specifying an amino acid.

Blue/White Screening

A method used to identify bacterial colonies that have successfully incorporated recombinant DNA into their plasmids.

Antibiotic Resistance Screening

Identifying bacterial that have developed resistance to antibiotics, typically by culturing them on media containing antibiotics or through molecular methods like PCR or sequencing.

lacZ Gene Interuption

Inserting DNA into the lacZ gene sequence, which prevents production of a functional B-galactosidase enzyme. This method allows for the easy identification of recombinant bacteria that have successfully incorporated a foreign DNA fragment.

Genetic Herbicides

Herbicide tolerant crops through genetic engineering, allowing farmers to control weeds without harming crops.

GMO Foods

Genetically modified organisms, they’re generally modified to have more desirable traits, such as pest resistance or adding of nutritional value. Often done to corn, soybeans and canola, can lead to loss of biodiversity.