CE exam 3 (management)

motivation

Internal & external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested and committed to a job; or, to make an effort to attain a goal

motivation results from factors such as

Intensity of desire or need
Incentive or reward value of the goal
Expectations of the individual and of his or her peers

content theories

Emphasize individual’s internal characteristics
Focus on understanding what needs individuals have and how to satisfy those needs

process theories

Emphasize how individuals are motivated
Focus on steps occurring when individual is motivated

Four process theories

Needs-Goal Theory
Vroom Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory
Porter–Lawler Theory

Needs-Goal Theory

Motivation begins with individual feeling a need
Need transforms into behavior that supports the goal of performance behavior to reduce the felt need
Individuals who set goals have an easier time focusing on relevant activities
ex: Changing majors

Vroom Expectancy Theory

Vroom is based on the premise that ‘felt needs’ drives human behavior
Introduces ‘Motivational Strength’:
An individual’s desire to perform a behavior
Their motivation fluctuates as individual’s desire increases or decreases
ex. Extra credit opportunity in a course

Equity Theory

Employee’s perception and/or view of reality of their inputs in comparison to others in similar situation
Inputs = what I put into my job
Outputs = what I get from my job
Employees will respond in different ways
ex. State & County Governments (salary/benefit tradeoff)

Porter–Lawler Theory

Amount of effort is determined by value of rewards and the probability of reward being received
Task accomplishment is determined by ability to do a task and perception of task required
Value of a reward is determined by intrinsic & extrinsic factors
Intrinsic rewards - come from directly performing the task
Extrinsic rewards – extraneous to the task, compensation
Perceived fairness of rewards influences amount of satisfaction produced by rewards

ways individuals react to inequities

Change work outputs – ‘throttle back’
Change compensation – ask for a raise
Change perceptions – rationalize?; cognitive dissonance
Choose a different referent
Leave situation – becomes a retention problem

4 content theories

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Argyris’s Maturity-Immaturity Continuum
McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

People have a range & hierarchy of needs which they seek to satisfy
Higher level needs could only be met once the foundations one have been satisfied

levels of maslows hierarchy

Level 1 = Physiological – survival
Level 2 = Safety & Security (jobs)
Level 3 = Social – valued member of organization
Level 4 = Self Esteem – respect, acceptance, recognition
Level 5 = Self Actualization – realize full potential, strive for betterment

ERG

Existence need= need for physical well being
Relatedness need= need for satisfying interpersonal relationships
Growth need= need for continuing personal growth and development

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Differs from Maslow’s in that the three levels (only 3 orders vs. 5) can be activated differentially at different time depending upon the situation
Example: job fulfillment may be missing, hence a focus on just ‘doing the job’ for the compensation
Lower skills jobs, impact of technology, etc.
Managers must focus on job design and enrichment
Attraction and retention implications!
Example: work for income, though look elsewhere for fulfillment … community service

Argyris’s Maturity-Immaturity Continuum

Human needs progress along a continuum focusing on the personal and natural development of people
People naturally progress from immaturity to maturity as they move along the continuum
Generally, more awareness and control over their own destinies

McClelland’s Acquired Three Needs Theory

Suggests the dominant motivator depends upon life  experiences and culture
Achievement- challenges, risks, repsonsibilities,
Affiliation- team centered management style
Power- decision making

three needs theory in practice

For example, do members of your team value:
Achievement – educational goals … tuition reimbursement as a benefit?
Affiliation – may be comfortable simply doing a great job, limited aspiration for “C-suite”
Power – enjoy public recognition; decision making; collaboration

McGregor’s Factor X/Y Theory

Manager have 2 beliefs about employees:
Theory X – majority of employees need to be closely managed as they generally dislike work
Can destroy motivation!
Theory Y – majority of employees seek responsibility, do not need much supervision
Can unlock value, strong performance

four elements of job design

Job Rotation – engagement, reduces absenteeism
Job Enlargement – leverage, satisfaction
Job Productivity and Enrichment
Flextime/Flexibility

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (job productivity and enrichment)

Hygiene, Maintenance Factors – relate to workplace
When these factors are undesirable, the individual becomes dissatisfied
Motivating Factors – relate to the work itself
When these factors are compelling, the individual is satisfied and motivated to perform tasks

leadership

The process of directing the behavior of others toward the accomplishment of an objective; ‘getting things accomplished through people

leadership vs management

Leadership:
Emphasizes vision; relationships; strategy … more-so
Cares about and focuses on people doing the job

Management:
Organization processes; execution … more-so
Emphasizes behavioral and nonbehavioral issues
Makes sure the job gets done

leadership trait theories

isolate characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders
Assumed leaders are born and not made
Described leaders based on a set of characteristics
Over time, showed inconsistency—no one set of qualities or traits could be used to differentiate leaders from non-leaders

six general leadership traits

Intelligence, Judgment & Verbal Ability
Past achievement in scholarship & athletics
Emotional maturity & stability
Dependability, persistence, and drive
Social and adaptive skills across groups
Desire for status and socioeconomic position

ohio state behaivoral study

Identified 2 independent dimensions of leadership behavior:

Structure Behavior (more Task focused):
The extent to which a leader defines and structures his or her role and the roles of employees to attain goals
Consideration Behavior (more Relationship focused):
The extent to which a leader has job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings

trustworthiness is ruined when leaders demonstrate:

Credit Hogs – taking credit …
Lone Rangers – too independent …
Egomaniacs- all about me …
Mules – stubborn, inflexibility

university of michigan behaivoral study

Employee oriented behavioral leader, emphasizes:
Interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs of employees, and accepts individual differences.
Job-centered behavioral leader, emphasizes:
Technical or task aspects of a job, is concerned mainly with accomplishing tasks, and regards group members as means to accomplishing goals.
Key finding: employee-oriented leader yields higher productivity and satisfaction

evolution of leadership theories

traits-->behavioral--> situational--> transformative

situational theories

Leadership success and effectiveness depends on a combination of:
SL = f(L, F, S): Leader; Follower; Situation
Each instance of leadership is different and requires a unique combination of leaders, followers, and leadership situations
Life Cycle Model
Fiedler Contingency Model
Path-Goal Theory

life cycle theory leadership

Leaders should adjust their leadership style in accordance with the maturity/readiness of their followers.
The focus is the situation of the followers, as it is up to them to accept or reject the leader

maturity

Ability of followers to perform their jobs independently, assume additional responsibilities, and desire to achieve success

readiness

a follower’s ability and willingness to perform a task.

Fiedler Contingency Model

Seek a proper match across three primary factors:
Leader-Member Relations – degree of leader acceptance by followers
Job/Task Structure – goals clearly articulated & known to followers
Position Power – extent to which leaders have control of rewards and punishments

To improve a leader’s effectiveness:
Change leader-member relations – align with ‘like-minded’ employees, same backgrounds
Change leader to fit situation (new dept. to be created, existing dept. to be overhauled)
Change leaders position power – established team?, new hires?, maybe even give a higher rank?

fiedler examples

Good leader-member relations + more highly structured task + stronger position power = more leader control and influence (i.e., well-run factory floor, fulfillment center)
Good leader-member relations + more unstructured task + weak leader position power = leader who is more permissive, passive, considerate (i.e., non-profits; committee work)
Poor leader-member relations + more unstructured task + weak leader position power = leader who is more controlling, active, structured leadership (i.e., batch shop operations)

life cycle examples

Examples:
Low task, low relationship = Leader Delegating
Push down decisions – more routine, repetitive jobs
High task, low relationship = Leader Directive
Needs to get done, an urgency

path goal theory

Leader outlines goals for followers
Leader clears path that followers should take
Followers achieve goals and earn rewards contingent on doing so
Two classes of situations: Environmental and Employee variables

Tannenbaum and Schmidt Leadership Continuum

Managers are successful decision makers only if the method they use to make decisions appropriately reflects the leader, the follower, and the situation

Range from Autocratic leadership decision making to subordinate-centered decision making

Three primary forces influence managers in making practical and effective decisions (be sure to read more on drivers in text!):
Forces in Manager: Values—Confidence in Subordinates—Personal Leadership Strengths—Tolerance for Ambiguity
Forces in Subordinates: Need for Independence—Readiness—Interest— Knowledge—Experience—Expectations
Forces in Situation: Organization Type—Group Effectiveness—Problem to Solve—Time Available

Autocratic Style –

leader who centralizes authority and limits worker participation

Democratic Style –

leader involved workers in decisions; consultative; more participative

Laissez-faire –

workers are free to make decisions; leaders offer resources and answer questions

Iowa study findings

Team & individuals satisfaction tends to be better under the democratic style:
Tends to improve motivation; morale; decision-making; quality

transformational leadership

focus on outcomes and how you get there
Inspire organizational success by affecting follower’s beliefs
Create vision—Build commitment—Facilitate organizational change
Know the people you are leading, coach & help them develop

emotional intelligence

Ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively through awareness of and effective response to our emotions
Strong leadership = IQ + EQ
IQ – knowledge, competencies, technical skills
EQ – social skills, likeability, relationship building

servant leadership

Leader’s primary role is to help followers in quests to satisfy personal needs, aspirations, and interests
Places high value on service to others over self-interests
Servant Leaders are: good listeners—persuasive—aware of their surroundings—empathetic—stewards – consultative coaches

moral courage

strength to take actions consistent with moral beliefs

leaders are

coaches

reverse mentoring

pairing a senior employee with a junior employee to transfer new knowledge

Ethnocentrism

Belief one’s group, culture, country, and customs are far superior to those of other groups

tokenism

unacceptable reference to one of the few members of a group within an organization

Equal Employment and Affirmative Action:

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Federal agency enforcing discrimination in employment laws regulating recruiting & other management practices

Affirmative Action
Eliminate barriers and increase opportunities for underutilized and/or disadvantaged individuals

Reverse Discrimination – well crafted policy avoids!

Regulations which encourages and protects diversity!

Promoting Diversity in Organizational Commitment

Commitment to Diversity (continuum), a framework for organizations and managers:

… from …
Broad based Diversity Programs and Efforts
… to …
No Diversity Programs and Efforts

Promoting Diversity Through Pluralism

Pluralism: managers strive to create an environment where differences are acknowledged, accepted, and contributed

golden rule approach

be sure to understand others frame of reference … empathy!

assimilation approach

avoid!, involves exerting undo pressure

righting the wrongs approach

embrace policies to create a more equitable set of conditions (Pinterest!)

culture specific approach

train on norms and practices of another culture (i.e., cultural immersion training in multinational corporations)

multicultural approach

– build into the fabric of the organization!

Donaldson/Scannell Four-Stage Model:

Stage 1: Unconscious Incompetence – managers are unaware, newly promotes, development required

Stage 2: Conscious Incompetence – on the learning curve!

Stage 3: Consciously Competent – much more deliberate and engaged

Stage 4: Unconscious Competence – most effective, part of a manager’s engagement style

Directive Behavior -

telling followers what to do and how to do it

Supportive Behavior -

being friendly with followers and showing interest in them as human beings

Participative Behavior -

seek suggestions from followers regarding business operations to the extent followers are involved in making important organizational decisions

Achievement Behavior -

- Setting challenging goals for employees and expressing confidence they measure up