PSYO 322 Final Chapters (Lougheed 2024)

What is gender identity?

The internal sense of being male, female, neither, both, or another gender

What is gender expression?

The physical manifestation of gender identity (e.g. voice, clothing, hairstyle, etc.)

What is a sex?

Assignment to a group (e.g. male, female, intersex) at birth, based on a combination of anatomy, hormones, and chromosomes

What does AFAB stand for?

Assigned female at birth

What does AMAB stand for?

Assigned male at birth

At what age do children reliably use gender labels in their speech?

By as young as 14-18 months of age, toddlers can reliably use gender labels in their speech

Related to their own gender-typed behaviour increasing (e.g. gendered toys)

When does gender constancy develop?

By age 3-5, kids develop "gender constancy" which is an understanding of gender as a permanent, constant characteristic

Rigid gender constancy relaxes in middle childhood as kids get better at abstract thinking

What is identity non-affirmation?

Identity non-affirmation occurs when an individual’s sense of self or identity is not acknowledged, supported, or validated by others.

What is identity invalidation?

Identity invalidation is the dismissal or denial of someone's sense of self, values, or experiences, often undermining their authenticity or worth.

The idea of a non-binary identity is all together dismissed

What is Bandura's social cognitive theory as it relates to gender development?

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory explains how individuals learn gender roles through observation, reinforcement, and social modelling.

Children observe and imitate gendered behaviours from role models (e.g., parents, peers, media) and are rewarded or discouraged based on societal norms

What is self efficacy?

The belief that you possess the resources to carry out some behaviour or achieve a goal

What is gender constancy?

Gender constancy refers to the understanding that one's gender is fixed and does not change over time or based on external appearances, typically developing around ages 5-7 in children.

What is gender schema theory?

It suggests that children develop mental frameworks (schemas) based on societal norms and stereotypes to organize and interpret information about gender.

What is the gender intensification hypothesis?

As adolescence approaches, there is more pressure from others to conform more closely to expected gender roles

-Parents worry about "inappropriate" interests and/or activities
-Teen peers are less tolerant of cross-gender behaviors
-Dating and conformity to traditional roles

What is gender consistency?

Gender consistency is a component of gender constancy, specifically recognizing that gender remains the same even when outward behaviours, clothing, or activities vary (e.g., a boy wearing a dress is still a boy).

What does it mean to be intersex?

An individual who has genitalia and/or reproductive organs that exhibit a mix of male and female characteristics

What are gender roles?

A set of shared cultural expectations that outlines the attitudes and behaviours a typical male or female should display

What is gendertyping?

The process by which children come to take on the gender roles expected in their society

What is self-efficacy in the context of adolescent gender development?

Self-efficacy in adolescent gender development is an individual's confidence in their ability to express and navigate their gender identity, enhancing their resilience against societal gender norms and expectations.

For example, a teenage girl confidently pursuing engineering—despite it being male-dominated—demonstrates self-efficacy by challenging stereotypes and persisting in her interests.

What is developmental systems theory?

A person's individual characteristics-- physical, intellectual, emotional, (etc.) act on and are acted on by the contexts in which a person is embedded.

These contexts include the family, peer group, community, and broader culture.

What does it mean to be transgender?

A person who has the anatomy of one sex but the gender identity of another

What is learned helplessness?

A condition that may follow failure if the person comes to believe that the outcome is uncontrollable and that further efforts are pointless

What is stereotype threat?

A factor that may interfere with the performance of those who belong to groups that are the target of negative stereotypes by arousing anxiety that they will fail and in this way confirm the stereotype

What is co-rumination?

A process in which friends talk about their problems and negative feelings at length, sometimes prolonging or amplifying their feelings

What is homophobia?

A pronounced attitude of fear or distaste for feelings of sexual attraction towards ones own gender or for those who are thought to have such feelings

What is female genital mutilation?

The removal of all or part of the female genitalia for non-medical reasons, a practice that is inflicted on an estimated 100-140 million women each year

What is androgyny?

Androgyny is the combination of both masculine and feminine traits or characteristics in an individual, regardless of their biological sex.

Sullivan's theory of interpersonal development - Preadolescence

Preadolescence (9 to 12 years):

Focus: Same-sex friendships.

Key Experience: Close, intimate friendships begin to form, which are crucial for developing a sense of trust, loyalty, and mutual understanding. These relationships often serve as a precursor to later romantic connections.

Sullivan's theory of interpersonal development - early adolescence

Early Adolescence (12 to 16 years):

Focus: Emergence of romantic relationships.

Key Experience: The development of heterosexual (or romantic) interests and relationships, where individuals explore intimacy, identity, and social roles. Peer acceptance and belonging become especially important during this stage

Sullivan's theory of interpersonal development - Late adolescence

Late Adolescence (16 to early 20s):

Focus: Integration of intimacy with identity.

Key Experience: The transition to more stable and mature interpersonal relationships. Adolescents work toward balancing romantic interests, friendships, and a sense of self, preparing for adult social roles and commitments.

Contrast Erikson and Sullivan's theories of development. What makes their theories different?

Erikson’s proposed crisis: Intimacy versus isolation

- Need to have an established identity in order to develop intimacy

Sullivan: Need to have intimacy in order to develop an identity

What are some of the problems with Sullivan's theory?

Old, made in the 50s

Doesn't take into account that some people don't desire sexual intimacy or relationships

People experience intimacy in differing ways

When Sullivan did his work, homosexuality was considered abnormal, and he equated normal development with heterosexuality

What are platonic relationships?

Nonsexual relationships with individuals who might otherwise be romantic partners

What characterizes secure attachment?

A healthy attachment between an infant and their caregiver, characterized by trust

What characterizes anxious avoidant attachment?

An insecure attachment characterized by indifference on the part of the infant towards the caregiver

What characterizes anxious resistant attachment?

An insecure attachment characterized by distress at separation and anger at reunion

What characterizes disorganized attachment?

A relationship between an infant and their caregiver characterized by the absence of normal attachment behaviour

Does infant attachment predict adolescent intimacy?

Some argue that the initial attachment relationship forms the basis for the model of interpersonal relationships employed throughout life

What is the internal working model?

The way a person expects relationships to work, based on their early experiences with caregivers, shapes how they approach relationships throughout their life.

What is rejection sensitivity?

Heightened vulnerability to being rejected by others

High rejection sensitivity and emotional insecurity are linked to depression and anxiety, which further increases in rejection sensitivity

How is interpersonal development cumulative?

Infancy affects early childhood, which affects middle childhood and so on (like a chain reaction)

How do jealousy patterns differ between younger and older adolescents?

Older adolescents typically have conflicts over private matters.

Younger adolescents typically have conflicts over public disrespect

Has social media hurt the development of intimacy?

There is very little evidence that adolescents use of digital devices to communicate with others is destroying young peoples abilities to engage in meaningful face-to-face relationships

How might social media be positive in the development of intimacy?

May help adolescents develop social competence

Actually enhances quality of adolescents' friendships

Serves an important purpose in helping teenager validate the importance of their friendships

Provides new ways for adolescents to enjoy their friends' companionship

Negative interactions often the same as those that happen in person

Girls' conflicts are _____, typically about ______, and resolved with _____

Longer, typically about some form of betrayal, and only resolved with an apology.

Boys' conflicts are _____, typically about ______, and resolved with _____

Briefer, typically over issues of power and control, more likely to escalate into physical aggression, and usually are resolved without explicit effort

What is the reaffiliation motive?

The normal and adaptive motivation that most of us have, which prompts us to reconnect with others when we feel lonely.

How are parent-adolescent relationships usually an imbalance of power?

Teens receive advice, and conflicts usually result with a "winner" and a "loser"

What does having social support mean?

The extent to which an individual receives emotional or instrumental assistance from their social network

A lack of social support from parents or from friends in school is associated with _____ and _____

Low self worth and poorer social adjustment.

Note that: Having support from one source does not compensate for lack of support for the other

The quality of adolescents' friendships is predicative of:

The quality of subsequent romantic relationships, but reverse is not true

The age at which dating begins is influenced by:

The norms and expectations in the adolescent's community

The age norms within the adolescent's school and peer group

Romantic relationships are more common at a younger age in other industrialized countries than in North America

Dating begins earlier among adolescents who have older siblings, are less close to their parents, and who have single mothers- especially if the mother is sexually active herself

Dating can mean a variety of things:

Group activities involving girls and boys/ potential partners

Casual dating in couples

Serious involvement in a steady relationship

Phases of romance: 11-13 years old

First discovery of interest in socializing with potential romantic and sexual partner

Phases of romance: 14-16 years old

A shift towards more meaningful dyadic relationships

Phases of romance: 17+ years old

Concerns about commitment at the forefront, and consideration of the long-term survival; and growth of romantic attachments

Why might the phases of romance differ for sexual minorities?

Stigmas and stereotypes still make the development of intimate relationships more complicated

There is no single developmental course for sexual-minority romantic relationships

What does it mean to be monosexual?

Attraction to one sex/gender (such as being straight, lesbian, or gay)

What does to mean to be non-monosexual?

Attraction to more than one sex/gender (such as bisexual, pansexual, or omnisexual)

The breakup of a romantic relationship is the single most common trigger of:

The first episode of major depression

Side note: Breaking up is also associated with increases in substance use and delinquency

BUT

Breaking up does not have severe effects on all adolescents

What is autoerotic behaviour?

Sexual behaviour that is experienced alone like fantasizing or masturbation

Males tend to _____ their level of sexual activity; Females tend to _____ their level of sexual activity

Overstate; Understate

What is the median age of first intercourse?

Around 17 years old

What is sexual socialization?

The process through which adolescents are exposed to and educated about sexuality

Directly from lecture: The way boys feel (sexual socialization)

First orgasm through masturbation

Keep matters of sex and intimacy separate

Interpret intercourse in terms of recreation rather than intimacy

Likely to experience approval from peers they confide in

Directly from lecture: The way girls feel (sexual socialization)

More likely to experience sex for the first time with another person

Integrate sexual activity into existing capacity for intimacy and emotional involvement

Because of possible pregnancy, more likely to be encouraged to approach sex cautiously

After first experience, more likely to encounter disapproval or mixed feelings from others in whom she confides in

What is self disclosure?

The process in which individuals communicate to others intimate information about their experiences and feelings

Adolescents talk about their ambitions and doubts; the problems they are having with their parents, siblings, and other peers; their hopes, dreams, and fears

What is intimacy?

An emotional sense of attachment to someone with whom one shares personal knowledge and a concern to each other's well being

What is the need for intimacy?

A desire to develop a relationship with a close friend or chum that emerges during the preadolescent years

What is the need for sexuality?

A need that emerges in response to the biological changes of puberty and the social changes of the adolescent peer group

What is the initial infatuation phase in the course of romance?

The first phase usually appears in early adolescence as "crushes" that combine passion and physical attraction but usually lack any real interaction or attempt at intimacy

What is the affiliative relationship phase in the course of romance?

Teens often engage in group activities, casual flirting, and light, fun interactions as they explore attraction and compatibility.

This phase is typically less about deep emotional commitment and more about building confidence, navigating peer influence, and testing the waters of romantic relationships in a low-pressure way.

What is the Intimate relationship phase in the course of romance?

Toward the end of adolescence, passion, affiliation, and intimacy are joined by commitment as defining features of romantic relationships.

The partners make a mutual, conscious decision that they want to maintain the relationship over the long term and attempt to work through any difficulties that may get in the way.

What are restrictive societies in terms of allowance of sexual expression?

Societies that control or forbid any sexual expression before adulthood or marriage

What are semirestrictive societies in terms of allowance of sexual expression?

Societies that say adolescents should not engage in premarital sex but these prohibitions are not enforced very rigorously

What are permissive societies in terms of allowance of sexual expression?

Societies that expect children and adolescents to be active sexually

What are sexual minorities?

Those whose sexual orientation is other than exclusively heterosexual

What are some of the factors that contribute to sexual orientation developing?

- Genetic factors
- Prenatal factors
- Childhood experiences
- The Fraternal birth order effect

What are STIs?

Diseases such as chlamydia, herpes, HIV/AIDS, that are spread mainly through sexual contact

What is the latency period in relation to STIs?

For infections, a period of time after a person has contracted the disease, but before any noticeable symptoms appear

What is a status offence?

An action such as truancy or buying cigarettes, that is against the law for those who are considered minors but not for adults

What are externalizing problems?

Turning one's difficulties toward the external world. For example in the form of aggression or antisocial behaviour

What are internalizing problems?

Turning one's difficulties inward, toward the self. for example in the form of depression or an eating disorder

What is comorbidity?

Comorbidity is the presence of two or more medical or psychological conditions occurring simultaneously in the same individual.

What is delinquency?

The legal term for actions by juveniles that violate the law

What are index crimes? And the two categories of violations?

Serious violations of the law, so called because they are included on official indexes of criminal activity

Violent crimes: murder, robbery, aggravated assault, etc.

Property crimes: burglary, larceny-theft, arson, etc

What makes someone a life-course-persistent offender?

An adolescent whose antisocial behaviour first appears in childhood and tends to continue into adulthood

Common characteristics of life-course-persistent offenders

- Mostly males
- From low SES backgrounds
- Often have hostile, inept, or neglectful parents
- Aggression identifiable as early as 8
- Have problems with self regulation
- Psychologically troubled

What makes someone an adolescence-limited offender?

An adolescent who became involved in antisocial activities during adolescence and typically do not continue into adulthood

Characteristics of adolescence-limited-offenders

- Do not usually show signs of serious psychological problems or family pathology
- However, show more problems than teen who are not at all delinquent
- More mental health, substance abuse, and financial problems

What is hostile attribution bias?

The tendency to interpret ambiguous cues and situations as reflecting hostile intent and to respond aggressively to them

What is instrumental substance use?

Instrumental substance use refers to the consumption of a substance for a specific, goal-oriented purpose rather than for recreational enjoyment

What is recreational substance use?

Taking a drug to experience the effects of the drug

What is the gateway hypothesis?

The idea that the use of relatively mild illicit drugs makes it more likely that a person will go on to use more dangerous hard drugs

What is the diathesis-stress model?

The theory that depression results from a combination of a predisposing vulnerability (diathesis) and the impact of negative events (stress).

What is rumination?

A process of dwelling on negative events, recalling other negative events from the past, and amplifying the long term significance of negative factors

Warning signs of s*icide (in textbook)

Thinking or talking about suicide

Having a plan

Social withdrawal

Expressing they have no purpose in life or reason for living

Increasing substance use

Expressing feeling trapped

Expressing feeling hopelessness about the future or that live will never get better

Talking about being a burden or about being in unbearable pain

Anxiety or significant mood changes

What is coping?

The various ways adolescents develop to handle situations that create stress

What is problem focused coping?

Problem-focused coping is when you tackle the source of a problem directly to solve or reduce it (e.g., making a plan to fix a mistake at work).

What is emotion focused coping?

Emotion-focused coping is when you manage your feelings about a problem instead of fixing it directly (e.g., talking to a friend or meditating to feel better).