chapter 8

2.3(3)
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54 Terms

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2 types of sex determination

1. genotypic sex determination
2. temperature dependent sex determination
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bipotential gonad
indifferent gonad that could be turned into either the testes or ovaries
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what type of sex determination do amphibians have
genotypic sex determination


1. XX/XY
2. ZZ/ZW
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heterogamety
when the sex chromosomes are different

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ex: male mammals are XY
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what type of heterogamety is the ancestral condition and which has evolved
ancestral: female

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evolved multiple times: male
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reproductive cycles (2)

1. seasonal reproduction
2. aseasonal reproduction
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seasonal reproduction
most species in temperate zones


1. only in later winter, early spring
2. only during summer
3. only during autumn

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in tropics: wet season breeders (temperature and rainfall)
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aseasonal reproduction
continuous reproductive cycles

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some anurans in relatively aseasonal tropical habitats
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spermatophores in salamanders
males

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like a capsule left behind:


1. made of cloacal glands
2. outer layer is a mass of sperm cells

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internal fertilization: promotes female parental care
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how can female salamanders store sperm
with the spermathecae


1. tubules in wall of cloaca

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sperm is stored for later fertilization
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amplexus in anurans (3)
mating behavior in which male frog grasps the female from behind to bring their cloacae into close proximity and aid fertiliztion

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1. inguinal amplexus
2. axillary amplexus (majority of anurans)
3. cephalic amplexus
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which amplexus type is the ancestral condition
inguinal amplexus
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which type of amplexus is only found in dendrobatids (poison dart frogs)
cephalic amplexus
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nuptial pad in anurans
assists in amplexus for the male to grasp the female more firmly
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phalloduem function
caecilians

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extension of male cloaca that assists in internal fertilization
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hybridogenesis
genome of the female parent that passes unchanged from one generation to the next

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paternal genome discarded and gametes produced by hybrid female contain only maternal genome

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intermediate phenotype = hybrid female + parental species male
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kleptogenesis and the 3 possibilities
females that steal genomes from males of other species

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has 3 outcomes:


1. sperm initiates development of embryo but sperm’s genetic material is not incorporated into embryo
2. sperm sometimes incorporates but resulting offspring has a higher ploidy (chromosomes) level
3. sperm genome replaces one of the original genomes in the hybrid offspring

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ex: ambystoma species
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oviparity in caecilians (2)

1. aquatic larvae
2. direct development with female as parental care
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viviparity in caecilians
yolk and maternal secretions

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11-12 months
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modes of oviparity in salamanders (3)

1. mode 1: pond breeding
2. mode 2: stream breeding
3. mode 3: nonaquatic eggs (has several subcategories)
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egg sacs of salamanders in mode 1
pond breeding

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more clustered together in a giant ball
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egg sacs of salamanders in mode 2
stream breeding

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more tube like sacs that are attached to substrate
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egg sacs of salamanders in mode 3
terrestrial eggs

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laid in shallow depressions or attached to leaves

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direct development with no water required or a small amount of water
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viviparity in salamanders
very limited

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1. some populations where female fertilizes multiple eggs
2. some populations with few eggs and unfertilized ones get eaten by fertilized ones (offspring)
3. some populations with only 2 eggs fertilized

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ex: european fire salamander
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types of oviposition in anurans (5)

1. various arrangements of independent eggs
2. 3D arrangements
3. floating arrangements
4. foam nests
5. linear arrangements
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eggs and larvae in water (anurans)
ancestral form

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cluster of eggs in water with arrangement dependent on O2 levels


1. cold: more O2, more clumped together
2. warm: less O2, film of eggs in single layer on top of water
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foam nests (anurans)
mucus mixed with water and the frog paddles its feet to foam it
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shift from ponds and streams (anurans)
avantages:


1. less predators

disadvantages:


1. less food

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offspring subsist on yolk in eggs instead
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aboreal water (anurans)
tree holes

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ex: bromeliads where a single egg gets places in the direct center
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eggs on land where larvae develop in water (anurans)
mud nests, water sac on bottom of leaf

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rain breaks mud nest open

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in water sac, eggs are out of predators way and they simply drop out when ready
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non aquatic larvae (anurans)
direct development where development occurs entirely in the egg

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no metamorphosis (tadpole stage)

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ex: australian turtle frog
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parental care in anurans (4)

1. egg attendance
2. transport of eggs
3. attendance of tadpoles and/or young
4. transport of tadpoles and/or young, and feeding of tadpoles
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ex of a frog that transports its tadpoles
dendrobatids

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transport tadpoles from terrestrial oviposition site to a body of water
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viviparity in anurans (2)

1. lecithotrophy
2. matrotrophy

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includes 9 species between the 2 types
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lecithotrophy
yolk reserves

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7 species
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matrotrophy
maternal secretions

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2 species
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benefits of direct development and viviparity in anurans (2)

1. large eggs, large yolk reserves
2. not dependent on standing water
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costs of direct development and viviparity in anurans (3)

1. reduction in total reproductive output
2. lower clutch size
3. increased vulnerability to predation
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benefits of parental care in anurans (4)

1. decrease in pathogens (cleaner eggs)
2. decrease in predation
3. increase in aeration
4. prevents desiccation (keeps moisture)
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costs of parental care in anurans (3)

1. reduced reproductive output
2. decrease food intake
3. reduced survival of the parent
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what is the relationship between egg size and clutch size (anurans)
quality: larger egg size, smaller clutch size

* direct development, parental care

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quantity: smaller egg size, larger clutch size

* species that lay eggs water, aquatic larval development
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how does resource variability influence egg and clutch size (anurans)
excess food:

* larvae hatch from large eggs, metamorphose sooner in larger in size

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limited food:

* larvae hatch from small eggs, metamorphose earlier
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how does environmental variability influence egg and clutch size (anurans)
favorable environment:

* small eggs might survive, female could increase fitness by producing many small eggs

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unpredictable environment:

* produce a range of egg sizes that might increase the change that some offspring will survive
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larval development in caecilians
no aquatic larval stage

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those with aquatic stage are relatively short and their external gills are lost quickly
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larval development/metamorphosis in salamanders
pond dwelling larvae keep tail fin and lateral line

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stream dwelling larvae lose tail fin and lateral line
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lateral line in pond dwelling salamander larvae
a line of sensory receptors
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larval development/metamorphosis in anurans (4)

1. egg fertilized
* external gills develop
2. early stage: tadpoles subsist largely on yolk in
* mouth development
3. late stage: tadpoles feed (are herbivores)
* limb development
4. adult stage: primarily carnivorous
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how can environmental variation alter life history traits in anurans
breeding in rain pool vs longer lasting temporary pond vs longer lasting pond has effects on duration of larval stage

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rain pool: shortest (8 days)

longer lasting pond: longest (7 weeks)
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how does larval body size > minimum body size trigger either additional growth or metamorphosis in the wilbur collins model
not >: additional growth

yes >: decide if larval body size > max body size
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how does larval body size > maximum body size trigger either additional growth or metamorphosis in the wilbur collins model
not >: size specific growth rate

yes >: metamorphosis
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how does size specific growth rate trigger either additional growth or metamorphosis in the wilbur collins model
not: metamorphosis

yes: additional growth
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how does population density influence growth in anurans
smaller density: grow larger

higher density: grow smaller (competition)
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how can environmental varation (duration of aquatic environments) influence the expression of paedomorphosis
shorter duration (temporary pond): less paedomorphic

longer duration (longer lasting pond): more paedomorphic
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how can environmental variation (absence of light) influence the expression of paedomorphosis
more paedomorphic in cave dwelling (light absence) species