A & P II Exam 1

Cardiovascular System: Blood

List the main functions of the Circulatory system:

List the main functions of the Circulatory system:

Distribution - Regulation - Protection

Body Temperature

Oxygen

Electrolytes (H+ Ions)

Takes away CO2

Regulation action potentials and hormones

Water protection (barrier)

Describe the basic characteristics of the blood:

More dense than water

pH= 7.35 - 7.45

Volume

• 5-6 liters in males & 4-5 liters in females

Temperature - 100.4 degrees

(Add pressure to help blood flow to a certain place)

Constricting

List the three formed elements:

Cell and cell fragments

Erythrocytes = RBC’s (99% of formed elements)

• Carry O2 and CO2

• More abundant and have no nuclei.

Leukocytes = WBC’s

• Fight diseases

• Have nuclei and can differ in size/types

Platelets (Cell Fragments)

Define hematocrit (or packed cell volume) and describe its importance:

Measures the proportion of red blood cells in the blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. Having too few or too many of them can be a sign of certain diseases. The hematocrit test is a simple blood test. It is sometimes referred to as a packed-cell volume test.

Blood tends to clot because:

Moving Slower

Rough Surfaced

Thicker Blood

• Tends to happen in athletes that take RBC boosters, boosting the RBC count % to 65%

Describe the composition of blood plasma and differentiate between plasma and serum:

Plasma- whole blood minus cells

Serum- plasma without protein clotting factors (straw colored)

Plasma is obtained when blood is collected in an anticoagulant tube, preventing it from clotting. Serum is similar to plasma in terms of its composition but differs in how it is obtained. The serum is obtained after blood has been allowed to clot naturally.

List and describe the importance of the three main proteins found in blood plasma:

Albumins

• Buffer blood pH

• Osmotic balance

Globulins

• protect against disease (immunoglobulins or antibodies)

Fibrinogens

• Clotting factors

What is the most abundant protein?

Albumin is 2/3’s of the proteins in the plasma.

Describe the origin, structure, and function of erythrocytes:

Small, biconcave disk

A-nucleate, no ribosomes, no mitochondria

Have to make new protein to stay alive

Makes oxygen and ATP anaerobically

Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin:

Transports oxygen

Accounts for more than 95% of protein in RBC

Transports carbon dioxide when oxygen gets dropped off so it can take over (RBC)

Structure

• Protein with 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains

• Heme - non-protein, lipid

  • Ring with Iron center (binds oxygen)

  • 4 heme per hemoglobin (one per chain)

Heme:

No protein part of hemoglobin that contains several elements that are key to the transportation processes.

Describe the life cycle of erythrocytes from erythropoiesis to RBC destruction:

Erythropoiesis. The life cycle of erythrocytes involves three stages; production, maturity and destruction. Production of erythrocytes (erythropoiesis) is one of the sub-processes of hematopoiesis, happening in the red bone marrow.

Erythropoiesis:

This is dependent on oxygen transport to help balance the amount going throughout the blood.

Pack cell volume increases and RBC count also increases

Erythropotient:

Release of oxygen levels in blood in the kidneys

Names and describe the types, causes and effects of RBC excesses and deficiencies:

Polycythemia and Anemia

Poly- Too many RBC in the blood and can lead to several problems including blood clots.

Anemia- Not enough RBC and can lead to cyanosis and not enough blood and oxygen being transported leading to hemoglobin and iron deficiencies.

List several types and causes of polycythemia and anemia:

Nutritional deficiency

• lack of Iron in diet; Iron is a hemoglobin component

• Lack of B12 or folic acid needed for cell division

Aplastic Anemia

• Bone marrow depression

Hemorrhagic anemia

• heavy bleeding and RBC’s are normal but lacking

Hemolytic Anemia

• Bed transfusion- elicits immune attack on RBC’s

• Genetic conditions

  • Thalassemia - low amounts of a and b chains

  • sickle cell anemia- chance in b chain

  • Hemoglobin molecules stick together

List several types and causes of polycythemia and anemia:

Absolute

• primary polycythemia

  • cancer of the erythropoietic line

• secondary polycythemia

  • all other causes

  • respiratory problems

  • high altitudes

  • excessive aerobic exercise

• Relative

  • dehydration or spleen issues

Describe sickle-cell anemia and explain why the condition remains prevalent in certain geographical locations:

What causes sickle cell disease? Sickle cell is an inherited disease caused by a defect in a gene. A person will be born with sickle cell disease only if two genes are inherited—one from the mother and one from the father. A person who inherits just one gene is healthy and said to be a "carrier" of the disease.

Define and compare leukocytosis and leukopenia:

Leukocytosis is an elevation in the absolute WBC count (>10,000 cells/μL). Leukopenia is a reduction in the WBC count (<3500 cells/μL).

Describe the relative abundance of each type of leukocyte:

White blood cells make up approximately 1% of the total blood volume in a healthy adult, making them substantially less numerous than the red blood cells at 40% to 45%.

What is the name for the clinical measure of the relative abundance of each type of leukocyte?

Differential WBC Count
– Relative abundance of different kinds of WBCs
– Measured by counting numbers of each different
type of WBC in a total of 100 cells

WBC's are composed of granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and non-granulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes).

Explain the function of leukocytes (WBC’s) in general and the role of each type of leukocyte:

N L M E B

Neutrophils (Granulocyte)

Eosinophytes (Granulocyte)

Basophils (Granulocyte)

Lymphocytes (Agranulocyte)

Monocytes (Agranulocyte/Macrophages)

Neutrophils

60-70%
10-14 μm in
diameter
Multi-lobed nucleus
Phagocytic against
bacteria
– Granules = Lysosomes

Lymphocytes

25-33%
5-17 μm in diameter
Spherical nucleus
Control other immune cells
(T cells)
Secrete antibodies (B cells)

Provide immune memory

Monocytes

3-8%
14-24 μm in diameter
Some become
macrophages within tissues

Functions: Phagocytize viruses, debris and bacteria

Eosinophils

2-4%
10-14 μm in
diameter
Bi-lobed nucleus
Functions:
– Phagocytize
allergens, antibody- antigen complexes, cell debris

Secrete chemicals that weaken parasitic worms

Basophils

<1%
8-10 μm in diameter
Lobed nucleus

Functions:
– Accumulate in
damaged tissues
where they release histamine and heparin.

Secrete to attract other granulocytes

Differentiate between granulocytes and agranulocytes:

The granulocytes are present within the cytoplasm in the form of granules while agranulocytes exist without the granules. The granulocytes have 4 lobes and agranulocytes are single lobes.

List some of the causes and effects of leukocyte excesses:

• infections.

• smoking.

• certain types of leukemia.

• emotional or physical stress.

• having your spleen removed.

• a reaction to medications, including steroids, lithium, or certain types of inhalers.

• chronic inflammation caused by injuries, arthritis, or other inflammatory conditions.

Erythro or Hemo:

Red Blood Cells

Leuko:

White Blood Cells

Thrombo:

Platelets

List the functions of platelets and state their origin in the body:

(Thin blood and the spleen)

Stick together/ stick to other things if in rough surfaces or thicker blood (Blood clots)

Small (2-4 μm in diameter),
a-nucleate cell fragments
Conditions if platelet numbers are outside their
homeostatic levels:
– Thrombocytosis – numbers too high
Caused by infection, inflammation, cancer
– Thrombocytopenia – numbers too low
Caused by platelet destruction or inadequate production

Enhance clotting and retract clots
Symptoms: excessive bleeding

Define hemostasis and list the three general stages of the processes:

The stoppage of bleeding
Three phases:
1. Vascular spasm

2. Platelet plug formation

3. Coagulation (Blood Clotting)

Describe two reaction pathways that produce blood clots:

Thrombocytosis - numbers are too high

• Caused by infection, inflammation, cancer

Describe two reaction pathways that produce blood clots:

Thrombocytopenia - numbers are too low

• Caused by platelet destruction or inadequate production

• Symptoms: excessive bleeding

How do intrinsic and extrinsic pathways differ?

Intrinsic - platelets/blood interaction

Extrinsic - Initiated by damaged tissue

Define coagulation and list several factors that must be present for efficient clotting:

Coagulation - amount of clotting

• Positive feedback loop

• Series of reactions resulting in formation of insoluble fibrin fibers

  • Reaction cascade allows for a large amount of fibrin to be formed with few starting reactants

• Two reaction paths can lead to fibrin formation (Intrinsic and Extrinsic)

Vascular Spasm:

Contraction of smooth muscle (SM) within a
blood vessel wall
SM contraction
→ Release of chemical factors & hormones by endothelial cells

→ More vascular spasm and proliferation of all cell types in the area

Platelet Plug Formation:

Platelet adhesion

• Platelets stick to exposed collagen fibers in broken vessel

Platelet aggregation

• Attached platelets change shape forming processes to reach out to other platelets

Activated platelets release:

• Protein clotting factors

  • Platelet- derived growth factor (for vessel repair)

Explain what happens to blood clotting when they are no longer needed:

Afterward, the clots usually dissolve. But sometimes a clot doesn't get broken down as it's supposed to. Clots may also form when they're not needed. Sometimes, clots break off a vessel wall and travel through the blood to other parts of the body.

Fibrinolysis

Fibrinolysis is a process that prevents blood clots from growing and becoming problematic. Primary fibrinolysis is a normal body process, while secondary fibrinolysis is the breakdown of clots due to a medicine, a medical disorder, or some other cause.

Explain what keep blood from clotting in the absence of an injury:

Clot Retraction:

Platelets adhere to fibrin and pull torn vessels edges together

• Reduces size of damaged area

• Can stick to each other or can stick to something surrounding

List several anticoagulants, both naturally produced and clinically applied:

Heparin- synthetic

Warfarin (Coumadin)

• Interferes with clotting factors that need vitamin K

Aspirin

• Interferes with platelet aggregation

Chelating Agents

• Bind up calcium

List several anticoagulants, both naturally produced and clinically applied:

Plasma anticoagulants

Heparin

• Released by basophils; stops thrombin production

Thrombomodulin

• Released by endothelial cells; changes thrombin activity

Prostacylin

• Inhibits platelet aggregation

Describe some bleeding and clotting disorders:

Hemophilia

• recessive X-linked genetic disease where clotting factors (Usually factor VIII) are lacking in abundance

Describe some bleeding and clotting disorders:

Thrombus

• Clot formed in intact vessel wall

  (Often where cholesterol plaques occur)

• Can break free and block vessel

Embolus

• Abnormal mass (usually a clot) in blood

• May start out as a thrombus OR may form spontaneously

• Can cause an embolism (Vessel blockage) and subsequent infarct (tissue damage)

  E.x. Stroke - infarct in CNS

  myocardial infarct (in heart)

Describe the general location, size, and shape of the heart:

Function: Provides pressure for the movement of blood.

Size: About the size of a fist.

Location: Within the pericardial cavity in the mediastinum and the left of midline

Describe the pericardial sac that endorses the heart:

The pericardium consists of two layers: the fibrous and the serous. The fibrous pericardium is a conical-shaped sac. Its apex is fused with the roots of the great vessels at the base of the heart. Its broad base overlies the central fibrous area of the diaphragm with which it is fused.

List and describe the three layers of the heart wall:

Heart wall has 3 layers

Epicardium

• Visceral pericardium of areolar and epithelial

Myocardium

• Cardiac muscle, blood vessels and nerves

Endocardium

• epithelial tissue

Trace the flow of blood through the four chambers of the heart, valves, and adjacent blood vessels (Atria):

Chambers of the heart

2 of these receive blood from the veins

• Auricles- areas of the atria that can expand to accommodate blood from the venae cavae (majors veins to heart)

• Coronary sulcus = separates atria from ventricles

Trace the flow of blood through the four chambers of the heart, valves, and adjacent blood vessels (Ventricles):

2 of these pump blood into arteries

Separated by:

• anterior inter ventricular sulcus

• posterior inter ventricular sulcus

Base - area to which blood vessels are attached

Apex - tip of the heart formed by left ventricle

Define and distinguish among the following circulatory circuits: Pulmonary

To and from the capillary beds associated with alveoli in the lungs

• Gas exchange blood/tissue and air occurs

Brings deoxygenated blood to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the heart.

Define and distinguish among the following circulatory circuits: Systemic

To and from capillary beds of the rest of the body

• Gas exchange b/t blood and tissue

Brings oxygenated blood to the tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart

Define and distinguish among the following circulatory circuits: Bronchial

The lung also has a systemic vascular supply, the bronchial circulation, which provides oxygenated blood from the systemic circulation to the walls of the conducting airways, pulmonary arteries and veins.

Define and distinguish among the following circulatory circuits: Cerebral

Cerebral circulation is the movement of blood through a network of cerebral arteries and veins supplying the brain. The rate of cerebral blood flow in an adult human is typically 750 milliliters per minute, or about 15% of cardiac output. Arteries deliver oxygenated blood, glucose and other nutrients to the brain.

Define and distinguish among the following circulatory circuits: Coronary

The coronary arteries also supply the myocardium with oxygen to allow for the contraction of the heart and thus causing circulation of the blood throughout the body. Two main coronary arteries originate from the base of the aorta as it exits the left ventricle: the left and right coronary arteries. (First branch off the aorta)

Only one of these circuits experiences an increase in oxygen levels…

The Pulmonary Circuit

Describe the purpose of the four valves of the heart: Atria and AV valves

Vessels: Conduct for blood movement

Atrioventricular AV valves

(Tricuspid - right) (Bicuspid - left)

• Allow blood to flow from atria to ventricles (open when ventricles relax)

• Prevent flow from ventricles to atria (close when ventricles contract

NOTE: Ventricles contract to make AV valves close

Ventricles contract to make AV valves open

Ventricles relax to make SL valves close

Describe the purpose of the four valves of the heart: Ventricles and SL valves

Semilunar (SL) valves

(Pulmonary SL valve) (Aortic SL valve)

• Allows blood to flow from ventricles to arteries (Open when ventricles contract)

• Prevent back flow from arteries to ventricles (Close when ventricles relax)

Differentiate among the Myocardium pectinate muscle, and papillary muscle:

Myocardium: It is the heart muscle that contracts and causes the heart to pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the oxygenated blood to tissues.

Pectinate: The function of pectinate muscles is to increase the power of contraction without increasing heart mass substantially.

Papillary: They are attached by fine strands of tendon to the valves between the atria and ventricles and prevent the valves from opening when the ventricles contract.

List and describe three heart valve disorders:

Rheumatic Heart Disease: Rheumatic heart disease is a condition in which the heart valves have been permanently damaged by rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory disease that can affect many connective tissues, especially in the heart. Untreated or under-treated strep infections put a person at increased risk.

Stenosis: Aortic valve stenosis is a thickening and narrowing of the valve between the heart's main pumping chamber and the body's main artery, called the aorta. The narrowing creates a smaller opening for blood to pass through. This reduces or blocks blood flow from the heart to the rest of the body. (Hardening)

Murmur: These sounds occur as the heart valves open and close to allow blood to flow through the heart. A heart murmur is an extra noise heard during a heartbeat. The noise is caused when blood does not flow smoothly through the heart.

Occlusion:

Blockage resulting in oxygen and nutrition deprivation

Ischemia:

State of oxygen deficit

Infarction:

Area of cell death (necrosis) caused by anoxia

Caused bu blockage of blood delivery/drainage

List the unique properties of cardiac muscle:

Entire organ contracts all or none

Long refractory period

Self-excitatory - not dependent of the nervous system

• there’s a rhythm in the heart that pace the action potentials

Differentiate between autorythmic and contractile cardiac muscle cells (CMC’s):

Autorythmic CMC:

• Produce pacemaker potentials

• Conduct impulses through heart muscle

Contractile CMC:

• Produce contraction leading to alternating

  • Systole (contraction)

  • Diastole (relaxation)

Differentiate between systole and diastole:

Systole occurs when the heart contracts to pump blood out, and diastole occurs when the heart relaxes after contraction.

Explain how the quantities and relative movement of sodium, calcium and potassium affect the action potential within autorythmic and contractile CMC’s:

These cells are self‐excitable, able to generate an action potential without external stimulation by nerve cells. The auto rhythmic cells serve as a pacemaker to initiate the cardiac cycle (pumping cycle of the heart) and provide a conduction system to coordinate the contraction of muscle cells throughout the heart.

Sodium- Slow inflow

Calcium- Fast inflow

Potassium- Fast outflow

Describe the internal electrical system of the heart:

Your heart's electrical system controls the timing of your heartbeat by regulating your: Heart rate, which is the number of times your heart beats per minute. Heart rhythm, which is the synchronized pumping action of your four heart chambers.

Contracts:

• Atria

• Ventricle (Perkunje)

  • AP spreads rapidly through conduction system to contractile cells

Trace the movement of the electrical signal throughout starting with the SA node:

The SA node starts the sequence by causing the atrial muscles to contract. That's why doctors sometimes call it the anatomical pacemaker. Next, the signal travels to the AV node, through the bundle of HIS, down the bundle branches, and through the Purkinje fibers, causing the ventricles to contract.

Interpret a normal electrocardiogram (ECG):

P wave

• atrial depolarization

QRS complex

• Ventricular depolarization

T wave

• Repolarization of ventricles

Depolarize = Contraction = Systole

R wave is bigger than the P wave because there are more contractile cells, ventricles in the R wave section are stronger.

Describe the terms bradycardia, tachycardia, flutter and fibrillation:

Sinus bradycardia - SA node impulses initiated at low rate (<60/min)

Sinus Tachycardia- SA node impulses initiated at high rate (>100/min)

Atrial flutter- 200-300 APs/min

Atrial fibrillation- 450-600 APs/min

Describe in detail one complete cycle of heart contraction and relaxation:

Ions: Na and Ca = depolarization (contraction)

Ions: K = repolarization (relaxation)

T wave, things start to relax

Ventricles are most full in the systole stage

When ventricles are in systole they increase rapidly, causing semilunar valves to open.

Explain isovolumetric contraction:

The phase of systole when both valves are closed (and, as a result, the productive flow is zero)

Define cardiac output and explain its importance:

CO= volume of blood ejected per minute

Depends on:

• Heart Rate (HR) - beats per minute

  • Depends on ANS

• Stroke volume (SV) - volume ejected per beat

CO = HR (Beats/Min) x SV (Volume/Min)

(Same amount of blood and pressure within the right and left ventricle)

Define stroke volume and heart rate and explain how one might calculate cardiac output:

Cardiac output is the product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV) and is measured in liters per minute. HR is most commonly defined as the number of times the heart beats in one minute. SV is the volume of blood ejected during ventricular contraction or for each stroke of the heart.

Describe preload, after load and ventricular contractility and explain how these factors can alter stroke volume:

Pre load - End-Diastolic Volume (EDV)

• Higher pre load = higher SV

After load

• Pressure of blood in arteries (Aorta)

• Higher after load = smaller SV

Ventricular Contractility

• Efficient contraction of ventricular myocardium

Before ventricles pump, they have to be full

Describe some of the nervous, hormonal and chemical factors that alter the heart rate and over contractility of the heart: Contractility

Positive IA increase contractility

• sympathetic innervation = Ca+ influx and increase

• Cardiac glycosides

• Epinephrine and caffeine

Negative IA decrease contractility

• Hyperkalemia

• Calcium channel blockers

Describe some of the nervous, hormonal and chemical factors that alter the heart rate and over contractility of the heart: Heart Rate

Increase:

• Sympathetic division of the ANS

  • Increase AP at SA node

  • Increased responses of AV node = less delay

• Hormones

  • Epinephrine

  • Thyroxine

• Altered ions

  • Hypocalcemia

  • Spastic contraction

• Increased temperature

Describe some of the nervous, hormonal and chemical factors that alter the heart rate and over contractility of the heart: Heart Rate

Decrease:

• Parasympathetic division of ANS

  • Decrease at SA node

  • Decreased AP conduction at AV node

• Altered ions

  • High and low potassium interfere with AP’s

• Decreased temperature

Explain how a change in blood pressure would result in a change in cardiac output and peripheral resistance (PR) via a baroreceptor negative feedback mechanism:

Respond to baroreceptors for arterial and atrial blood pressure for neutral control of BP

Negative Feedback:

If BP is too low:

• Increase in HR/SV - Increase in CO - Increase in BP

• AND generalized vasoconstriction - Increase in PR/BP (Sympathetic “fight or flight” mode)

If BP is too high

• Decrease in HR/SV/CO/BP

• AND generalized vasodilation - decrease in PR/BP (Parasympathetic ANS “rest and digest” mode)

Explain how a change in oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide concentration, or pH would result in a change in cardiac output or peripheral resistance via a chemoreceptor negative feedback mechanism:

Respond to chemoreceptors in aortic arch and large arteries in the neck for neural control of BP

Negative feedback:

If oxygen is LOW, pH is LOW, CO2 is HIGH

• Increase in HR/PR (generalized vasoconstriction by norepinephrine)

• Increase in BP

If oxygen is HIGH, pH is HIGH, CO2 is LOW

• Decrease in HR/PR (generalized vasodilation by inflammatory chemicals)

• Decrease in BP

Describe some effects of exercise on cardiac output:

Cardiac output during exercise increases greatly owing to the relatively high heart rates that are achieved during exercise. Heart rate increases proportionately with workload until heart rates close to maximal are attained.

Describe the structure of a blood vessel:

Function:

• Delivery of nutrients and oxygen

• Removal of wastes

Types of vessels:

Arteries

• Carry blood away, under high blood pressure from the heart

• Elastic or muscular

• Arterioles = smaller arteries with organs

Capillaries

• Sites of materials exchange b/t blood and tissues

Veins

• Return blood (under low pressure) to heart

• Venules = smaller and leaky

• Sinuses = flatted venous reservoirs

Describe the different types of arteries, capillaries and veins:

Arteries carry blood away from your heart. Veins carry blood back toward your heart. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels, connect arteries and veins

Trace the route usually taken by the blood from the heart to the tissues and back again:

Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, through the arteries, to the capillaries in the tissues of the body. From the tissue capillaries, the deoxygenated blood returns through a system of veins to the right atrium of the heart.

Explain the relationship between blood pressure, peripheral resistance, and velocity of blood flow:

The constriction of arterioles increases resistance, which causes a decrease in blood flow to downstream capillaries and a larger decrease in blood pressure. Dilation of arterioles causes a decrease in resistance, increasing blood flow to downstream capillaries and a smaller decrease in blood pressure.

Describe the relative distribution of blood among arteries, capillaries and veins:

Arteries transport blood away from the heart and branch into smaller vessels, forming arterioles. Arterioles distribute blood to capillary beds, the sites of exchange with the body tissues. Capillaries lead back to small vessels known as venules that flow into the larger veins and eventually back to the heart.

Define the term perfusion:

Blood supply to a certain region, fight or flight. Can choose which part of the body gets blood at a point in time. (Blood can not be supplied everywhere at the same time)

Explain the forces that keep blood flowing back to the heart in the veins:

Heart valves

The valves prevent blood from flowing backward. The heart has four valves. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and right ventricle. The mitral valve separates the left atrium and left ventricle.

How do veins prevent the pooling of blood in the lower extremities:

The valves also control the pressure in smaller veins on the legs' surface. If the valves within the veins fail to work properly, there is a blockage to normal flow, or the calf muscles cannot pump properly, blood can flow backwards in the veins and pool in the legs

Define and describe the various types of hypotension and hypertension:

High blood pressure (hypertension) occurs when the force of blood against the artery walls is too strong, while not enough force is the problem with low blood pressure (hypotension)

Differentiate among continuous, fenestrated and sinusoid types of capillaries:

Continuous:

• Complete endothelium with tight junctions

• Blood-brain barrier

Fenestrated:

• Porous endothelium; very permeable

• Small intestine, kidney

Sinusoid:

• Incomplete endothelium; slows blood flow

• Liver, spleen, lymphoid tissue

Describe the forces that enable capillaries to exchange materials between blood and tissues:

As blood passes from arteries to veins through the capillary bed, fluids are exchanged by diffusion, the movement of molecules from areas of high pressure to low pressure. This relies on two forces: hydrostatic pressure, or blood pressure, and osmotic pressure, the constant pressure needed to keep blood from diffusing.

Distinguish between capillary hydrostatic and osmotic pressure:

Capillary hydrostatic pressure

• Physical pressure on capillary walls

• “Pushing” fluids out

  • Blood Pressure

Plasma Osmotic Pressure

• Physical draw by solutes on the more concentrated side of capillary walls

• “Pulling” fluids in

  • Filtration

Describe the causes and effects of edema:

Edema is swelling caused by too much fluid trapped in the body's tissues. Edema can affect any part of the body.

Describe atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis:

Arteriosclerosis is the condition of the arterial walls where there is a development of thickness and hardening and atherosclerosis is a type of this condition where there is significant plaque buildup.

Define aneurysm:

Localized dilation or out pouching of a blood vessel.

Describe how varicose veins form:

When the valves become weakened or damaged, blood can collect in the veins. This causes the veins to become enlarged. Sitting or standing for long periods can cause blood to pool in the leg veins, increasing the pressure within the veins. The veins can stretch from the increased pressure.