Carbohydrate Metabolism

These flashcards cover important terms and concepts related to carbohydrate metabolism, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and hormonal regulation in biochemical pathways.

Glycogenesis

The process of synthesizing glycogen from glucose.

Glycogen

A stored form of glucose found in the liver and muscles.

Glycogenolysis

The breakdown of glycogen to release glucose.

Glucose

A simple sugar that is an important energy source in living organisms.

Gluconeogenesis

The metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Pyruvate

The end product of glycolysis, which can be further processed for energy.

Lactate

A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism, often generated during strenuous exercise.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins that can be used in metabolic pathways.

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

Fatty acids

Long hydrocarbon chains that are important components of lipids.

Acetyl-CoA

A key molecule in metabolism that participates in the citric acid cycle.

Citric acid cycle

A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy.

Electron transport system

A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to form ATP.

CO2 + H₂O + ATP

The final products of aerobic respiration, where glucose is fully oxidized.

Stage 1 of metabolism

Involves digestion of nutrients into building blocks like amino acids and sugars.

Stage 2 of metabolism

Conversion of building blocks into Acetyl-CoA.

Stage 3 of metabolism

Complete oxidation of Acetyl-CoA to form CO2 and water.

Anabolism

Synthetic pathways in metabolism that build larger molecules.

Catabolism

Degradative pathways in metabolism that break down larger molecules.

NAD

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, a coenzyme involved in redox reactions.

FAD

Flavin adenine dinucleotide, another key coenzyme in metabolic reactions.

NADH

The reduced form of NAD, carrying electrons to the electron transport chain.

Glycogen synthase

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of glycogen from UDP-glucose.

Hexokinase

An enzyme that phosphorylates glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.

Fructose-6-phosphate

An intermediate in glycolysis formed from glucose-6-phosphate.

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

A product of glycolysis that is split into two three-carbon sugars.

Pyruvate kinase

An enzyme that catalyzes the final step of glycolysis, transferring a phosphate to ADP.

Glucose-1-phosphate

An intermediate in the conversion of glycogen to glucose.

UDP-glucose

A glucose donor in glycogen synthesis.

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A second messenger involved in transmitting hormonal signals.

Insulin

A hormone that promotes the synthesis of glycogen and lowers blood glucose levels.

Glucagon

A hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis and raises blood glucose levels.

Epinephrine

A hormone that stimulates glycogen breakdown during stress or exercise.

NADH + H+

Reacts with oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.

PEP carboxykinase

An enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis, converting OAA to PEP.

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

An enzyme that catalyzes a key step of gluconeogenesis.

Glucose-6-phosphatase

An enzyme that converts glucose-6-phosphate to free glucose.

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase

An enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis from Acetyl-CoA.

Oxaloacetate

A four-carbon molecule that condenses with Acetyl-CoA in the citric acid cycle.

FADH2

The reduced form of FAD, which carries electrons to the electron transport chain.

Lactic acid fermentation

Conversion of pyruvate to lactate in anaerobic conditions.

Alcohol fermentation

Conversion of pyruvate to ethanol in yeast.

ATP synthesis

The process of creating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cells.

Aldolase

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to two triose phosphates.

Glycerate-3-phosphate

An intermediate in glycolysis that is eventually converted to pyruvate.

AMP

A signaling molecule that indicates low energy levels in the cell.

Citrate

A six-carbon compound formed in the citric acid cycle, important for metabolism.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

An enzyme that converts pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA.

Energy transfer

The process of moving energy from one molecule to another, crucial in metabolism.