Intro to Psychology Exam 1 Ch 1-5

Behavior

• Actions or reactions of an individual, observable in various situations

Behavioral approach

• Focuses on observable behavior and the ways it can be learned or modified through reinforcement and punishment

Biological approach

• Examines how genetics, brain structures, and neurochemical processes influence behavior and mental processes

Biopsychosocial approach

• Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain behavior and mental processes

Case study

• In-depth investigation of a single person, group, or event to explore underlying principles of behavior

Cognitive approach

• Emphasizes internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving in understanding behavior

Confederate

• An individual in an experiment who is aware of the research purpose and acts according to the experimenter's instructions to influence results

Control group

• The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, used as a baseline to compare effects

Correlational research

• Method to examine the relationship or association between two variables without implying cause and effect

Critical thinking

• Systematic evaluation of evidence and reasoning to form well-supported conclusions

Demand characteristics

• Subtle cues or signals in a study that can influence participants' behavior, potentially affecting results

Dependent variable

• The outcome measured in an experiment, which may change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable

Double-blind experiment

• Study design in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of critical aspects of the experiment to prevent bias

Empirical method

• Using observation, experimentation, and evidence-based data to answer research questions

Evolutionary approach

• Explains behavior in terms of natural selection and adaptation over generations

Experiment

• Research method involving manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable

Experimental group

• Group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable

Experimenter bias

• Occurs when a researcher's expectations influence the outcome of a study

Functionalism

• Early psychological perspective focused on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment

Humanistic approach

• Emphasizes human growth, potential, and self-actualization in understanding behavior

Hypothesis

• Testable prediction derived from a theory, specifying the expected relationship between variables

Independent variable

• Factor in an experiment that is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable

Internal validity

• The degree to which an experiment accurately demonstrates a causal relationship between variables

Longitudinal design

• Research method in which the same participants are studied over an extended period

Mental processes

• Internal, subjective experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and motivations

Natural selection

• Evolutionary principle that traits enhancing survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on

Naturalistic observation

• Research method involving observing behavior in its natural context without interference

Neuroscience

• Study of the nervous system and its role in behavior and mental processes

Operational definition

• Clear, precise definition of variables so that they can be measured or manipulated in research

Placebo

• Inactive substance or condition given to a control group to control for the effects of expectation

Placebo effect

• Change in behavior due to participants' expectations rather than the treatment itself

Population

• Entire group a researcher is interested in generalizing results to

Psychodynamic approach

• Explains behavior through unconscious motives, conflicts, and past experiences

Psychology

• Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Random assignment

• Procedure to assign participants to experimental or control groups in a way that ensures each participant has an equal chance of being in any group

Random sample

• Subset of a population chosen so every member has an equal chance of participating, ensuring representativeness

Replication

• Repeating a study to see if the same results are obtained, confirming reliability

Research participant bias

• Distortion of results caused by participants' expectations or behavior in a study

Sample

• Group of participants actually studied, drawn from a larger population

Science

• Systematic approach to understanding phenomena through observation, experimentation, and analysis

Sociocultural approach

• Examines how cultural and social factors influence behavior and mental processes

Structuralism

• Early psychological perspective focused on breaking down mental processes into their basic components

Theory

• Organized set of principles explaining a phenomenon and predicting future events

Third variable problem

• Situations where a third, unmeasured factor may explain the relationship between two variables

Validity

• Extent to which a measure accurately reflects or assesses the concept it is intended to

Variable

• Any factor or condition that can change or vary in a study

Action potential

• Brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon, all-or-nothing response

Adrenal glands

• Endocrine glands involved in stress response, mood, and energy regulation

Afferent nerves

• Nerves that carry sensory information from the body to the CNS

Agonist

• Substance that enhances or mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter

All-or-nothing principle

• Neuron either fires completely or not at all; no partial firing

Amygdala

• Brain structure involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and aggression

Antagonist

• Substance that blocks or inhibits the effects of a neurotransmitter

Association cortex

• Areas of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from multiple brain regions for higher-level processing

Autonomic nervous system

• Division of the PNS that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration

Axon

• Part of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses to other neurons or muscles

Basal ganglia

• Brain structures involved in voluntary movement and procedural learning

Brain stem

• Connects brain to spinal cord; controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate

Cell body

• Part of a neuron containing the nucleus; integrates incoming signals

Central nervous system (CNS)

• Composed of brain and spinal cord; responsible for processing and responding to information

Cerebral cortex

• Outer layer of the brain involved in higher mental functions such as thinking, planning, and perception

Chromosomes

• Threadlike structures in cells that carry genetic material (DNA) in 23 pairs

Corpus callosum

• Bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication

Dendrites

• Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

• Molecule that contains genetic instructions for development and functioning

Dominant-recessive genes principle

• Inheritance rule: dominant gene masks effect of recessive gene

Efferent nerves

• Nerves that carry commands from the CNS to the muscles and glands

Endocrine system

• Network of glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream

Forebrain

• Largest part of the brain; involved in complex functions like emotion, thought, and planning

Frontal lobes

• Cerebral cortex region involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and motor control

Gene x environment (G × E) interaction

• Concept that genes and experience interact to shape behavior and characteristics

Genes

• Segments of DNA that code for specific traits or functions

Genotype

• Individual's genetic makeup

Glands

• Organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Glial cells

• Support cells in the nervous system that provide structure, nutrition, and insulation for neurons

Hindbrain

• Brain region controlling basic life functions such as heart rate, respiration, and balance

Hippocampus

• Brain structure critical for forming new memories

Hormones

• Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream to regulate body functions

Hypothalamus

• Brain structure involved in homeostasis, regulating hunger, thirst, temperature, and biological rhythms

Limbic system

• Neural system involved in emotion, motivation, and memory

Midbrain

• Brain region involved in sensory processing, movement, and pain perception

Motor cortex

• Region of frontal lobe that controls voluntary movement

Myelin sheath

• Fatty covering around axons that speeds neural transmission

Neocortex

• Part of the cerebral cortex involved in higher-order cognitive functions

Nervous system

• Body's communication network for transmitting signals between brain, spinal cord, and body

Neural networks

• Interconnected neurons that process specific types of information

Neurons

• Nerve cells specialized for transmitting information throughout the nervous system

Neurotransmitters

• Chemical messengers released at synapses to transmit signals between neurons

Occipital lobes

• Cerebral cortex region responsible for processing visual information

Ovaries

• Female endocrine glands that produce estrogen and progesterone

Pancreas

• Endocrine gland that regulates blood sugar by producing insulin and glucagon

Parasympathetic nervous system

• Division of autonomic nervous system responsible for rest and digest functions

Parietal lobes

• Cerebral cortex region involved in touch, spatial awareness, and somatosensory processing

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• Nerves outside the CNS; connects CNS to limbs and organs

Phenotype

• Observable characteristics of an individual, influenced by genotype and environment

Pituitary gland

• Master endocrine gland that regulates other glands and growth

Plasticity

• Brain's ability to adapt and reorganize in response to experience or damage

Prefrontal cortex

• Part of frontal lobes involved in planning, reasoning, and self-control

Risk factor

• Characteristic or condition that increases likelihood of developing a disorder

Resting potential

• Stable, slightly negative electrical charge of an inactive neuron