Agriculture

• Increasing Population

• Innovation

• Specialization

• Complex Societies

Collective Learning as a Threshold (4)

Pleistocene Epoch

Also known as the last ice age

• auroch

• smilodon

• wooly mammoth

• wooly rhino

• irish elk

• tarpan

• dire wolf

• short faced bear

• deinotherium

Pleistocence Animals (9)

1. Protein constraint

2. Very large prey

3. Prime adults

4. Extinction of large prey

5. Fatty parts

6. Complex weapons

7. Improved tracking

8. Brain expansion

9. Adaption to hunting smaller prey

10. Decline in prey

11. Transition to agriculture

Cycle of Agriculture

1. Crops: Potato, corn, beans, squash, tomato, peanut, cassava, avocado, sweet potato, peppers, pineapple, and pumpkin.

2. Livestock/Animals: Turkey.

3. Other Items: Tobacco, cacao bean, vanilla, and quinine (used for malaria treatment).

Items Transferred from the Americas to Europe, Africa, and Asia

1. Crops: Wheat, rice, barley, oats, sugar cane, banana, coffee bean, peach, pear, olive, citrus fruits, grape, onion, turnip.

2. Livestock/Animals: Cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, and honeybees.

3. Diseases: Smallpox, influenza, typhus, measles, malaria, diphtheria, and whooping cough.

Items Transferred from Europe, Africa, and Asia to the Americas

Before the Columbian Exchange, the Americas lacked domesticated animals like cattle, pigs, and horses. The introduction of these animals provided new sources of protein and transformed agricultural practices.

The Americas: Introduction of European Crops and Livestock

Wheat, rice, and barley became staple crops in many regions of North America, influencing the development of bread-based diets and cuisines.

Staple Crops in North America after Columbian Exchange

The blending of European grains and livestock with Indigenous crops like corn, beans, and potatoes led to the development of hybrid cuisines combining European techniques with Native American ingredients.

New Culinary Traditions in the Americas

The introduction of staple crops like potatoes, tomatoes, maize (corn), and beans revolutionized European diets. The potato, in particular, became a crucial food source in countries like Ireland and Russia, leading to population growth and improved nutrition.

Europe: Increased Variety and Nutrition

Tomatoes transformed Mediterranean cuisine, leading to dishes like Italian pasta with tomato sauce and Spanish gazpacho. Chocolate (from cacao beans) and vanilla became luxury items and later integral parts of European desserts.

Tomatoes' Impact on Mediterranean Cuisine

The demand for sugar from the New World led to the establishment of large plantations in the Caribbean, reshaping global trade and cuisine through the widespread availability of sweetened foods.

Expansion of Global Trade Due to Sugar Demand

Maize (corn), cassava, and peanuts became essential crops in many parts of Africa, where they adapted well to local climates. Cassava and maize, in particular, became staple foods in West and Central Africa, significantly impacting local cuisines and diets.

Africa: Introduction of New Crops

The introduction of these calorie-dense crops led to population growth in certain regions. Traditional African dishes like fufu and various porridges started incorporating these new ingredients.

Dietary Changes in Africa

Crops like chili peppers, sweet potatoes, and peanuts were introduced from the Americas and quickly integrated into Asian cuisines. Chili peppers, for example, became integral to Indian, Thai, and Chinese cooking, transforming spice blends and flavor profiles.

Asia: Adoption of New Ingredients

The introduction of maize, potatoes, and sweet potatoes in China helped sustain large populations, especially in areas where rice or wheat cultivation was difficult.

Expansion of Staple Crops in Asia

Foods that were once region-specific became global staples. For instance, Italian, Indian, and Thai cuisines are unimaginable without tomatoes or chili peppers, which originated in the Americas.

Globalization of Ingredients in Asia

The blending of indigenous and introduced ingredients led to new culinary traditions. For example, Creole cuisine in the Caribbean is a mix of African, European, and Native American influences.

Fusion and Hybrid Cuisines in Asia

The introduction of high-calorie crops like potatoes and maize led to better food security in Europe, Asia, and Africa, fueling population booms and the growth of cities.

Increased Food Security and Population Growth in Asia

• Dog (20,000 BC)

• Sheep (8500 BC)

• Cat (8500 BC)

• Pig (7000 BC)

• Cow (7000 BC)

• Chicken (6000 BC)

• Horse (3600 BC)

Domestication Timeline

• Dog (_____ BC)

• Sheep (_____ BC)

• Cat (_____ BC)

• Pig (_____ BC)

• Cow (_____ BC)

• Chicken (_____ BC)

• Horse (_____ BC)

1. Pharaoh

2. Scribe / Nomarch

3. Merchant / Potter

4. Farmer / Slave

Hierarchy of Society (4)

• Ingredients: Increasing Collective Learning → innovation increasing ability to manipulate and extract resources from environment and other organisms.

• Structure: Human communities sharing information needed to manipulate their surroundings in new ways.

• Goldilock’s Condition: Long preceding period of Collective Learning; warmer climates; population pressure.

• Emergent Properties: Increased capacity of humans to extract energy and food → larger, denser communities → increased social complexity → accelerating Collective Learning.

Give the

• Ingredients

• Structure

• Goldilock’s Condition

• Emergent Properties

of Threshold 7: Agriculture

Agrarian Civilization

Societies evolved from simple farming into complex systems with new social structures, hierarchies, trade networks, and innovations in religion, architecture, and writing.

1. Pharaoh

2. Goverment Officials (Vizier, Priest, and Noble)

3. Soldiers

4. Scribes

5. Merchants

6. Craftsmen

7. Peasants

8. Slaves

Egyptian Social Pyramid (8)

• Top-down

• Bottom-up

Societal organizations (2)

Social stratification

refers to the ranking of members of a society in groups on the basis of their status

1. Power

2. Economic resources

3. Prestige

4. Occupation

5. Caste

6. Education

Determinants of Social stratification (6)

Power

Refers to the degree to which a person can control other people.

Economic resources

Refers to the level of income from all resources is an important indicator of one’s place in society.

Prestige

Refers to the degree of respect, favorable regard or importance accorded to an individual by members of society.

Occupation

Refers to the high class professionals that include big businessmen, industrialists, landlords and high class government and semi-government officials.

Caste

It is permanent, having its status ascribed as birth.

Education

Refers to the standard of education also determines a social class.

• Men’s Roles: Clearing land, plowing fields, managing large animals, operating heavy machinery, and marketing crops.
  Women’s Roles: Planting, weeding, harvesting, food processing, childcare, and managing small livestock.

Gender Issues in Agriculture

• Slavery: Ownership of individuals.

• Caste: Hereditary status.

• Class: Economic-based positions.

Systems of Stratification (3)

1. Ascribed

2. Achieved

Types of Social Status (2)

Ascribed Status

The social class position allocated to an individual by society as a result of factors over which the individual has no control.

Achieved Status

The social class position which an individual acquires as a result of his/her own activities.

Social Mobility

Is the movement of people up or down the stratification system. It can also be defined as the act of moving from one social class to another.

1. Territorial Mobility

2. Vertical Mobility

3. Horizontal Mobility

Types of Social Mobility (3)

Territorial Mobility

It is the change of residence from one place to another

Vertical Mobility

Refers to a major movement up or down in social class position.

Horizontal Mobility

Refers to movement within a social class. In general, there is no overall change in the social class status of an individual involved

• Unequal land distribution

• Peasant poverty

• Dependence on weather conditions

• Limited access to technology

• Gender inequality in farming

• Food insecurity

• Labor exploitation

• Social hierarchy based on land ownership

• Environmental degradation due to intensive farming practices

Societal Issues (9)

Marx and Class Conflict

Karl Marx focused on class relations in capitalist societies, emphasizing the division between the proletariat and bourgeoisie.

Class is determined solely by one’s relation to the means of production.

What determines class according to Karl Marx?

1. Proletariat

2. Bourgeoisie

1. Refers to the working class who sell their labor

2. Bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of production.

Group membership utterly determined life chances.

How did Karl Marx view group membership in capitalist societies?

They argued that stratification benefits society by ensuring that the most important roles are filled by the most talented and worthy individuals.

What did David and Moore (1945) argue about stratification?

Functionalist Approaches

Functionalist theorists study the role of inequality in maintaining societal equilibrium.

Sociologists explain poverty through two main themes:

1. Blaming the victim

2. Blaming the system

Explanations for Poverty (2)

• Social welfare systems

• Homelessness

• Lack of basic medical care

• Educational segregation

• People turn to non-conventional means to make money.

Poverty and Social Problems (5)