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Introspection
Examination of one's own thoughts and feelings
Wilhelm Wundt
Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1876
Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
Behaviorism
The science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Pavlov
Founder of classical conditioning while trying to study digestive system
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Cognitive psychology
The scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
E.C. Tolman
Researcher famous for work with latent learning and cognitive maps with rats in mazes
Models
Provide an approximation (physical/conceptual representation) of a scientific phenomenon that cannot be observed directly
Behavioural economics
A field of study that examines the effects of humans' actual (not idealized) decision-making processes on economic decisions
Cognitive bias
A feature of human psychology that skews belief formation.
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
Psychologists who researched heuristics and their effects on decision making
Multi-store memory model
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
rehersal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
Sperling (1960)
Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory
Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen
Participants asked to report as many as possible
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
Used free recall (recalling the to-be remembered items in any order) of a list of 20 items combined with an interference task to show the primacy-recency effect.
primary effect
tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items
recency effect
tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information
Craik and Lockhart
developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory
levels of processing
depth of transforming information, which influences how easily we remember it
episodic memory
A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.
procedural memory
A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.
semantic memory
A type of long-term memory of general knowledge about the world
Working Memory Model
An explanation of the memory used when working on a task. Each store is qualitatively different.
Dual task technique
a research technique where participants are exposed simultaneously to two sets of stimuli, either of the same or different modalities
Baddeley and Hitch
Working memory model - phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive
central executive
The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.
visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information
phonological loop
A component of working memory where we repeat verbal information to help us remember it. It is further divided into phonological store and the articulatory rehearsal component
episodic buffer
A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)
Conrad and Hull (1964)
Demonstrated the phonological similarity effect
Baddeley, Lewis and Vallar, 1984
explored the effects of articulatory suppression on the phonological similarity effect
cognitive schema
networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world
mental representation
internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate
Bransford and Johnson (1972)
Presented participants with difficult-to-comprehend information
Experimental Group 1 first saw a picture that helped explain the information
Experimental Group 2 saw the picture after reading the passage
Control Group did not see the picture
Group 1 outperformed the others.
Having a mental framework of comprehension aided memory encoding and retrieval
Anderson and Pichert (1978)
Aim- To determine the influence of schema processing on both encoding and retrieval.
Method- Participants heard a story which contained information about a house. Half of the participants were asked to adopt a home-buyer schema when hearing the story, and the other half, a typical burglar schema. A distracting task was performed for 12 minutes before testing recall. After a further 5 minute delay, half the participants were then given the alternative schema (i.e. home-buyers were given burglar schemas and vice versa), and the other half were asked to retain their original schema, and recall was retested.
Results- Points directly linking to alternative schemas increased by 10%, whilst those relating to previous schemas declined.
Social Schemas
representations of how social groups work and the kinds of things they can or cannot do
Scripts
general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation
self-schemas (self-concept)
beliefs about oneself that guide the processing of self relevant info. influence how we perceive ourselves and evaluate others; perceptions of ourselves from our own past knowledge
Darley and Gross (1983)
Lab experiment showing a girl playing in a "poor" environment and a girl playing in a "wealthy" environment. When asked how participants thought the girls would do on an intelligence test, most said the wealthy girl would do better
Bower, Black, & Turner (1979)
showed how scripts stored in our memory help us make sense of sequential data
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
top-down processing
the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole
Bugelski & Alampay (1961)
The rat man
pattern recognition
looking for similarities among and within problems
Effort after meaning
Participants connect a stimulus with knowledge or experience they already possessed. Once the stimulus gains meaning, it can be more readily stored.
Thinking
changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new information
decision making
the process of making a choice or finding a solution
normative model
a model that describes what people should do
Formal Logic
Deals with premises and conclusions (all Greeks are mortal)
Theory of Probability
relates to the likelihood of an occurrence, expressed by the ratio of the number of actual occurrences to that of possible occurrences.
Utility Theory
A theory that allows decision makers to incorporate their risk preference and other factors into the decision-making process.
descriptive model
a model that describes what people actually do
Theory of Planned Behavior
the theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions
Martin Fishbein
Created the theory of reasoned action
Adaptive decision maker framework
a micro-level cognitive model that zooms in on the transient internal process of making decision. people possess a toolbox of decision-making strategies which is guided by emotion-related goals (meta goals) as well as an attempt to achieve accuracy.
Weighted additive strategy (WADD)
for every alternative - multiple value of every attribute by the importance (weight) of the attribute to calculate weighted sum - select alternative with largest weighted sum (Alternative Based)
