Unit 4 Vocab

Attributions

Explanations for behavior and mental processes, reasoning (ex. Explaining why someone was late to a meeting)

Dispositional Attributions

Relate to internal qualities, depends on the feeling (ex. Attributing lateness to someone's laziness or personality)

Situational Attributions

Relate to external circumstances, depends on the situation (ex. Attributing lateness to heavy traffic or a delayed train)

Explanatory Style

People explaining good or bad events in their lives or others (ex. Someone explaining how they failed a test due to lack of effort [dispositional] or difficult questions [situational])

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing positive events to internal factors and negative events to external factors (ex. Believing success is due to one's own effort and failure due to bad luck)

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing negative events to internal factors and positive events to external factors (ex. Believing failure is due to personal flaws and success due to luck)

Actor/Observer Bias

Tendency to attribute our own actions to situational factors but others' actions to dispositional factors (ex. Justifying our own mistakes by circumstances but blaming others' mistakes on their character)

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating the role of disposition factors in others' behaviors (ex. Assuming someone is rude because of their personality rather than their situation)

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing our successes to internal factors and failures to external factors (ex. Taking credit for good grades but blaming poor grades on difficult exams)

Mere Exposure Effect

This effect occurs when people are exposed to a stimulus repeatedly over time, leading to increased liking (ex. Liking a song more after hearing it several times, go sit next to your crush in class)

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Something that's supposed to happen, people behaving in ways that elicit behaviors from others that confirm their beliefs or perceptions (ex. Believing a student is capable leads to giving them more attention, which improves their performance)

Social Comparison

When people evaluate themselves based on comparisons to others

Upward Comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are better off (ex. Comparing to more successful peer)

Downward Comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are worse off (ex. Comparing to someone less successful)

Relative Deprivation

Feeling deprived based on comparisons (ex. Feeling unsatisfied with one's income when others earn more)

Cause and Result of Bias

Stereotypes can be both stem form and reinforce biased perceptions and experiences

Prejudiced Attitudes

Leads to forming unfair opinions about individuals based on group membership

Discriminatory Behaviors

Acting unfairly towards individuals based on stereotypes

Implicit Attitudes

Individuals hold but may be unaware of or may not acknowledge (ex. Unconscious preference for one's own race over others)

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve, justifying inequality

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving members of an out-groups as more similar to each other than in-group members

In-Group Bias

Favoring members of one's own groups over others

Ethnocentrism

Believing one's own culture or group is superior to others

Belief perseverance

The persistence of a belief despite evidence suggesting it is not accurate (ex. Continuing to believe in a debunked health myth)

Confirmation Bias

Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that confirm existing beliefs (ex. Only reading news sources that align with one's political views)

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental discomfort that occurs when actions or attitudes are in conflict.

Changing Attitude

Adjusting beliefs to align with actions (ex. Deciding smoking isn't as harmful as believed to reduce discomfort)

Changing Actions

Modifying behavior to sign with beliefs (ex. Quitting smoking to match the belief that it is harmful)

Social Norms

The expectations and roles a society has for its members in individuals and social situations (ex. Dress codes, manners, and behaviors in public places)

Social Influence Theory

The social pressure to behave or think in certain ways can be normative or informational (ex. Peer pressure to conform to group behaviors or beliefs)

Persuasion

Techniques used to convince others of particular ideas or actions

The Elaboration Likelihood Model

Two main routes to persuasion

Central Route

Focuses on logical arguments and evidence; leads to long-lasting attitude change (ex. Persuading someone with data and facts about the benefits of a product)

Peripheral Route

Relies on superficial cues; leads to temporary attitude change (ex. Using an attractive spokesperson to endorse a product)

Halo Effect

A type of peripheral route where one positive trait influences overall perception (ex. Assuming a physically attractive person is also intelligent)

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Start with a small request, followed by a larger request (ex. Asking for a small donation first, then a larger one later)

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Start with a large request, followed by a smaller one (ex. Asking for a large favor that is likely to be refused, then smaller, a more reasonable request)

Conformity

Explores on why people adhere to unspoken rules and norms

Group Size

Larger groups increase conformity

Unanimity

Conformity is more likely when everyone else agrees

Cohesion

Conformity increases with group solidarity

Public Response

Conformity is higher when responses are public

Obedience

Examines why people comply with authority directives

Authority Presence

Physical presence of an authority figure increases obedience

Legitimacy

Perceived legitimacy of the authority figure

Proximity

Closer proximity to the authority figure

Depersonalization

Reducing the victim's personal connection

Lack of Dissent

Absence of dissenting peers

Cultural Context

The influence of individuals perceive and behave toward themselves and others

Individualism

Emphasizes personal goals and individual achievement (ex. Valuing personal success and independence)

Collectivism

Emphasizes group goals and social harmony (ex. Valuing family and community over individual achievement)

Multiculturalism

Recognizes and values diverse cultural backgrounds (ex. Encouraging inclusion and respect for cultural differences)

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussions to intensify group opinions (ex. Political groups becoming more extreme after discussions)

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making, you don't want to rock the boat like you don't want to create problems (ex. Ignoring dissenting opinions to maintain group consensus)

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced sense of personal responsibility in a group (ex. Bystanders not helping in an emergency, assuming others will act)

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals in a group task (ex. Team members putting in less effort when working together)

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group settings (ex. Anonymity in a crowd leading to aggressive behavior)

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks and worsened performance on complex tasks in the presence of others

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating the extent to which others share one's beliefs or behaviors (ex. Believing most people agree with one's political views)

Superordinate Goals

Goals that require cooperation and unite different group (ex. People from different teams within a nation working together to win an international championship)

Social Traps

Situations where individual self-interest leads to collective harm (ex. Overfishing depleting a shared resource)

Industrial-Organization (I/O) Psychologists

They study workplace behavior

Altruism

Selfless behavior, often influenced by social norms (volunteering at a homeless shelter)

Social Reciprocity Norm

Expectation to help others who have helped us (ex. returning a favor)

Social Responsibility Norm

Expectations to help those who depend on us (ex. helping people like the elderly or children)

The Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present (ex. Witnessing a car accident but assuming others will call for help)

Diffusion of Responsibility

Belief that others will take action

Social Influence

Looking to others for cues on how to behave

Evaluation Apprehension

Fear of being judged for intervening

Psychodynamic Theory

This emphasizes the role of unconscious processes in driving personality (ex. Hidden desires and unresolved conflicts influencing behavior)

Unconscious Mind

Contains thoughts, memories, and desires outside of conscious awareness (ex. Repressed childhood experiences affecting adult behavior)

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge reality (ex. Ignoring evidence of a partner's infidelity aka them cheating on you)

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer outlet (ex. Taking out frustration on a pet instead of a boss)

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts to others (ex. Accusing others of being angry when you are the one who is angry)

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors with plausible but inaccurate explanations (ex. Saying you failed a test because it was unfair, not because you didn't study)

Reaction Formation

Acting in a manner opposite to one's true feelings (ex. Treating someone you dislike in an overly friendly way)

Regression

Reverting to childlike behaviors (ex. Throwing a tantrum when upset)

Repression

Burying distressing thoughts in the unconscious (ex. Forgetting traumatic experiences)

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities (ex. Aggressive impulses redirected into sports)

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Interpreting inkblots to uncover unconscious thoughts

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Creating stories based on ambiguous images

Humanistic Psychology

The personal growth and self actualization (ex. Viewing oneself with unconditional acceptance and striving to fulfill one's potential)

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and love without conditions (ex. Parents loving their children regardless of their actions)

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The drive to realize one's full potential (ex. Pursuing personal goals and self-improvement)

Social-Cognitive Theory

The interaction between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors in shaping personality

Reciprocal Determinism

The idea that personal factors, behavior, and the environment interact to shape personality (ex. A person's friendly behavior influences their social environment which reinforces their view of themselves as sociable)

Self-Concept

How one views themselves and their relationship to others

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations (ex. Confidence in one's ability to solve math problems)

Self-Esteem

Overall sense of self-worth or personal value (ex. Feeling good about oneself and one's abilities)

Trait Theories

Identifying and measuring enduring characteristics that influence behavior

Traits

Enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior

Agreeableness

Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative (ex. Being helpful and trusting)

Openness to Experience

Willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences (ex. Enjoying art, adventure, and new ideas)

Extraversion

Tendency to be outgoing and energetic (ex. Seeking out social interactions)

Conscientiousness

Tendency to be organized, responsible, and hardworking (ex. Being diligent and disciplined)

Emotional Stability (Neuroticism)

Tendency to experience negative emotions (ex. Being calm and resilient versus anxious and moody)

Measurement

Traits are measured using specialized personality inventories

Factor Analysis

Statistical method used to organize item response into traits

Motivation

Exploring behaviors that address physical needs and desires

Drive-Reduction Theory

Behaviors help maintain homeostasis (ex. Eating when hungry)