MGMT 340 Final Study Guide: Leadership, Power, and Change

Leadership

Goals/ direction of influence/ strategy.

Organizational (Formal) Power

Derived from a person's position.

Legitimate Power

Position power.

Reward Power

Power when someone has control over the resources or rewards others want.

Coercive Power

Power over the control of the punishments in an organization.

Personal Power

Comes from the person themselves.

Expert Power

Derived from the person's expertise, skill, or knowledge.

Referent Power

Exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person.

Downward Influence

Influence directed from a higher level to a lower level in an organization.

Lateral Influence

Influence occurring between peers at the same organizational level.

Upward Influence

Influence directed from a lower level to a higher level in an organization.

Rational Persuasion

Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable.

Consultation

Increasing the target's support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan.

Inspirational Appeals

Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

Collaboration

Working together with others to achieve a common goal.

Ingratiation

Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.

Personal Appeals

Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Exchange

Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request.

Apprising

Informing the target about the benefits of complying with a request.

Pressure

Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.

Coalitions

Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Political Behavior

Activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.

Impression Management (IM)

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form on them.

Causes of Political Behavior

Caused by individual factors like high self-monitoring, internal locus of control, and need for power, as well as organizational factors such as resource scarcity, ambiguous roles, low trust, and competitive environments.

Consequences of Political Behavior

Perceptions of organizational politics are linked to negative outcomes such as lower job satisfaction, increased stress, and higher turnover.

Conflict

a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about

Functional conflict

conflict that supports the group, improves performance, and is constructive

Dysfunctional conflict

conflict that hinders group performance and is destructive

Task conflict

conflict that relates to the content and goals of the work

Relationship conflict

conflict that is focused on interpersonal relationships; it's dysfunctional and psychologically exhausting

Process conflict

conflict that relates to how the work should be done

Dyadic conflict

conflict between two people

Intragroup conflict

conflict within a group

Intergroup conflict

conflict between groups or teams

Collaborating

both parties work together to maximize outcomes; win-win; use when the goal is shared and both the outcome and the relationship are important

Accommodating

the willingness of one party to place the opponent's interests above own; lose to win; use when issues are more important to others, when harmony and stability are important, when you need to show reasonableness

Competing

a desire to satisfy own interests without concern for the other; win-lose

Compromise

each party's losses are offset by gains; splitting the difference; use when time or resources are limited and when collaboration is not possible

Avoiding

a desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict; lose-lose; use when you need to calm down and regain perspective, when you waste time/resources, when you have low value in the outcome

Negotiation (Bargaining)

a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them

Distributive bargaining

example is buying a car; you go out to see the car, it's great and you want it; the owner tells you the asking price; you don't want to pay that much; both of you negotiate on the price; it leaves one party as the loser and creates animosity if you have to keep working together

Integrative bargaining

assumes that one or more possible settlements can create a win-win solution

Negotiation process

preparation, definition of ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining, closing and commitment

Preparation

each party determines its goals for the negotiation, including its best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA)

Definition of ground rules

who will do the negotiating, what time constraints, what issues will the negotiation be limited to, specific procedure

Clarification and Justification

explain, amplify, and justify your original demands; each party makes a case for its position

Bargaining

each party uses distributive or integrated strategies to gain something of value

Closing and commitment

an agreement is formalized

Personality

agreeableness/extraversion/intelligence

Self-efficacy

Positively related to individuals' negotiation effectiveness.

Intellectual ability

A factor influencing negotiation effectiveness.

Moods/emotions

Anger is positively related to getting concessions; disappointment is positively related to winning concessions; anxiety leads to deceptions and lower negotiation effectiveness.

Culture

Negotiations within the same culture are often more effective, and negotiators must be aware of emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiations.

Gender

Men value status, power, recognition; women value compassion and altruism, with men seeking economic outcomes and women seeking relationship outcomes.

Organizational culture

A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from others.

Strong culture

Characterized by high intensity and consensus among members.

Weak culture

Characterized by low intensity and consensus among members.

Organizational subcultures

Cultures within an organization that may differ from the overall organizational culture.

Differentiated cultures

Cultures that have distinct differences within the organization.

Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture

Includes innovation and risk taking, attention to detail, outcome orientation, people orientation, team orientation, aggressiveness, and stability.

Functions of cultures

Defines boundaries, conveys identity, generates commitment, enhances stability, serves as a control mechanism, and defines rules.

Impact of organizational culture

Affects organizational climate and ethical work climate.

Culture creation stages

Includes anticipatory/prearrival stage, encounter stage, and metamorphosis.

Outcomes of culture

Includes productivity, commitment, and turnover.

Maintaining a culture

Involves Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA), socialization, and person-organization fit.

Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA)

Selecting candidates based on personality fit with the culture and letting go those who do not fit.

Socialization

The primary process by which employees learn the social knowledge to adapt to an organization.

Person-organization fit

Attracting individuals whose personalities align with the organizational culture.

Culture transmission methods

Includes symbols, physical structures, language, stories, rituals, and ceremonies.

Changing a culture

Can occur through changes in leadership or mergers and acquisitions (M&A).

Forces for change

Planned change is intentional and goal-oriented to improve adaptability and change employee behavior.

Sources of change resistance

Habitual sources that resist change.

Lewin's Three-Step Change Model

Model that shows successful change in organizations should follow three steps: 1. unfreezing the status quo. 2. movement to a new state. 3. refreezing the new change to make it permanent.

Kotter's Eight-Step Plan for Implementing Change

Creating the climate for change, engaging and enabling the organization, implementing and sustaining for change.

Action Research

A change process based on the systematic collection of data and selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate. Five steps: diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, evaluation. Provides at least two specific benefits, is problem-focused, and reduces resistance to change.

Organizational Development

A collection of change methods that try to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being.

Nature of the workforce

More cultural diversity, aging population, increased immigration and outsourcing.

Technology

Faster, cheaper, and more mobile computers and handheld devices; emergence and growth of social networking sites; deciphering of the human genetics code.

Economic shocks

Rise and fall of global housing market, financial sector collapse, global recession.

Competition

Global competitors, mergers and consolidations, increased government regulation of commerce.

Social trends

Increased environmental awareness, liberalization of attitudes towards gay, lesbian, and transgender employees.

World politics

Rising health care costs, negative social attitudes toward business and executives, opening of new markets worldwide.

Habit (individual)

To cope with life's complexities, we rely on habits or programmed responses, which can become a source of resistance when confronted with change.

Security (individual)

People with a high need for security are likely to resist change because it threatens their feelings for safety.

Economic factors (individual)

Changes in job tasks or established work routines can arouse economic fears if people are concerned that they won't be able to perform the new tasks or routines to their previous standards.

Fear of unknown (individual)

Change substitutes ambiguity and uncertainty for the road.

Selective information (individual)

Individuals are guilty of selectively processing; they hear what they want to hear and ignore information that challenges the world they've created.

Structural inertia (organizational)

Organizations have built-in mechanisms—such as their selection processes and formalized regulations—to produce stability, which acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability when confronted with change.

Limited focus of change (organizational)

Confronted with change, this structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.

Group inertia (organizational)

Even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may act as a constraint.

Threat to expertise (organizational)

Changes in organizational authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the organization, which may threaten the expertise of specialized groups.

Threat to established power (organizational)

Any redistribution of decision-making can threaten established power relationships.

Strategies for overcoming resistance to change

Communication, Participation, Building support and commitment, Developing positive relationships, Implementing changes fairly, Manipulation and cooptation, Selecting change supporters, Coercion.

Interventions for change agents

Sensitivity training, survey feedback, process consultation, team building, intergroup development, appreciative inquiry.

Ways to create culture of innovation

Structure, management tenure, resource, communication.