AP Psych Unit 2 Review

neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

dendrite

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles and glands.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter and stimulates a response

antagonist

a chemical that binds to a receptor site and inhibits or blocks a response

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.

nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.

sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

a techinque for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Show brain functions

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

A forebrain structure that processes sensory information for all senses, except smell, and relays it to the cerebral cortex.

reticular formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

cerebellum

Functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance

limbic system

brain part associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

hypothalamus

Directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

Involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

Includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

A brain area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain's natural electric activity

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

sequential processing

the processing of one aspect of a problem at a time; used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

cognitive neuroscience

A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity.

dual processing

Simultaneously processing on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Behavior genetics

Study of the relative power & limits of heredity & environmental influences on behavior

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules

DNA

Complex molecule containing the genetic info that makes up chromosomes

Genes

Biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; Segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes (Varies for each traits)

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Hypnosis

state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion

Posthypnotic suggestion

A suggestion made to a hypnotized person that specifies an action to be performed after awakening, often in response to a cue.

Dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks

Sleep apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep

Night terrors

sleep disruptions that occur during Stage 3 of sleep, involving screaming, panic, or confusion

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

Manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

Latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Substance use disorder

disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

Cocaine

A stimulant drug derived from the coca tree.