Understanding Prosocial Behavior and Helping Theories

Prosocial Behavior

any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person

Altruism

motive/desire to help another person even if it involves at cost (or at least no benefit) to the helper

Kin selection

behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection

Norm of Reciprocity

the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood of them helping us in the future

Social Learning Theory

Helping is learned through observation and reinforcement

Social Exchange Theory

Maximizing rewards/benefits and minimizing costs

Empathy

the ability to put oneself into the shoes of another person and experience the events & emotions the way that person experiences them

Pure Altruism

Requires a person to sacrifice for another without consideration of personal gain

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain

Carol Study

A study by Toi & Batson (1982) where Carol broke both her legs and needs help catching up with her school work

High empathy condition

focus on Carol's feelings

Low empathy condition

remain objective

Findings of empathy/altruism carol study

More people agreed to help if there was a high cost of not helping

Low cost of not helping

not seeing Carol in class

Gender Differences in Helping

Women are more likely to give long-term, nurturing help; Men are more likely to help in emergencies

Religiosity

Religious people are only slightly more likely to help during emergencies but more likely to provide planned help

Good Mood Effect

Good moods can lead to helpful behavior

Isen and Levin (1972)

Study showing that people were more likely to help when a dime was found in a coin slot

Tendency to Help

Increases with degree of relatedness

Findings of Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994)

Kin are helped more than non-kin, especially in life-or-death situations

Empathy-Altruism Summary

Under some conditions, powerful feelings of empathy and compassion for the victim motivate selfless giving

Helping Behavior Example

Helping behavior makes someone feel good about themselves

Life-or-death situations

More likely to help elderly & unhealthy people in need in everyday situations

Characteristics of proscial behavior

Prosocial behavior is NOT always selfless

Prosocial behavior requires an actual action/activity

Negative-state relief hypothesis

Helping behavior to alleviate one's own bad mood.

Guilt

Feeling responsible, leading to increased helping behavior.

Similarity

Helping is more likely for those similar to us.

In-group

Group with which an individual identifies closely.

Out-group

Group with which an individual does not identify.

Good Samaritan study

Study showing time pressure affects helping behavior.

Urban overload hypothesis

City dwellers avoid stimulation, reducing helping behavior.

Kitty Genovese case

Murder witnessed by neighbors, highlighting non-helping behavior.

Bystander Effect

More witnesses reduce likelihood of individual helping.

Latane and Darley

identified a five-step model that explains how bystanders decide to intervene in an emergency:

1. Notice the event

2. Interpret it as an emergency

3. Decide if they are responsible

4. Choose how to help

5. Take action

Five Steps to Helping

Decision tree for determining whether to help.

Step 1: Noticing an Event

Recognizing an emergency situation requires attention.

Distraction

Environmental factors that prevent noticing emergencies.

Step 2: Interpreting as Emergency

Determining if a situation is an emergency.

Pluralistic ignorance

The state in which people mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others, even though everyone’s behavior is the same

Specifically, bystanders assume nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned

Smoke-filled room study

Step 3: Assuming Responsibility

Feeling personally accountable to help in emergencies.

Diffusion of responsibility

Decreased personal responsibility with more bystanders present.

Step 4: Knowing How to Help

Understanding appropriate actions to assist in emergencies.

Cramer et al. (1988)

Study on helping behavior of nurses vs. students.

¤Alone or with others, 70-75% of nurses helped

¤70% of students helped when alone; 25% helped when with others

Step 5: Implementing Help

Taking action to provide assistance in emergencies.

Costs of helping

Potential legal, social, or personal risks of helping.

Increasing helping behavior

Strategies to enhance likelihood of providing assistance.

Specific instructions

Clear guidance to facilitate helping in emergencies.

Self-awareness

Increased awareness can promote prosocial behavior.