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What is Descartes’ goal in Meditations? How does he go about achieving this goal?
his goal is to rebuild his thoughts and opinions to make them more solid and stable
he does this by destroying the thoughts and opinions he held previously and starting from 0 (demolish previous beliefs, rebuild from the foundation)
What are Descartes’ reasons for doubting?
the senses are unreliable
we could be dreaming
god or some very powerful being could deceive us
What is the evil genius and why does Descartes introduce it?
the evil genius is a “device” Descartes uses to help him doubt his beliefs - a supremely powerful being that deceives us or affects our thoughts.
he uses it because it’s very difficult to withhold assent from all of your previous beliefs
What does it mean to “withhold assent”?
to refuse to affirm or deny something
How does Descartes establish with certainty “I exist”?
“I think therefore I am” (“cogito ergo sum")
meaning that he is thinking therefore he has to exist in some capacity.
this doesn’t answer the question of “what” he is, but does say that he exists
How does Descartes answer the question “what am I” in Meditation 2?
Before: Descartes would have said that he is a man (rational animal), body & soul
Now (after Med 1): Descartes says that he is “a thinking thing” (a mind, a consciousness)
What am I? pg. 19 “A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling, and also imagines and has sensory perceptions”. → a thing that thinks
What does Descartes understand by the word “think”?
thinking = being consciously aware - any form of conscious awareness is a thought
What is Descartes’ criterion for being certain?
Whatever he perceives “clearly and distinctly” must be true (certain)
How does the fact that we have an idea of God allow Descartes to prove that God exists?
Descartes proof for god
I have an idea of God
the idea of God could only have originated from God
Therefore, God exists
How is error possible according to Descartes? (will & intellect)
short answer: because we have freedom
Because the scope of our will is wider than the intellect meaning we can choose to believe things that go beyond our knowledge. To avoid error we should withhold assent when we don’t know something for sure
What does it mean to use our will correctly?
to withhold assent when we aren’t sure
What is freedom and why doesn’t it require “indifference”?
Freedom involves the absense of external determination
“we are moved to affirm or deny or to pursue or avoid it in such a way that we do not feel ourselves to be determined by any external force” (AT 57)
For Descartes, freedom doesn’t require indifference. You are in a state of indifference when you aren’t inclined one way or the other.
What is Cartesian dualism? What is “reductive materialism” (not Descartes position)?
cartesian dualism - the view that bodies and minds are two fundamentally different types of things
a body is an extended thing
a mind is a thinking thing
reductive materialism - the only thing that exists is matter and that thoughts and mental states (like believing , hoping, feeling pain), are really states or processes in the brain / central nervous system
What does Descartes say is his “essence”? What is his “whole self”?
His essence is a thinking thing. his whole self is his mind and body in one of two ways.
the mind and body are closely joined and intermingled, so his whole self is the mind and body together
the mind and body are distinct, and his “essential core” is the mind
what is “first philosophy”
could be "what comes first & lays foundations”
first philosophy is also Aristotle’s name for Metaphysics
What kind of knowledge does Machiavelli promise to the prince?
how to obtain and maintain power
What things is Machiavelli concerned about and what is he not concerned about?
He cares about power
He does not care about the content of character, the good of the people or justice
What are the two ways of interpreting Machiavelli’s sentences with the word “should”? (descriptive vs. prescriptive claims)
descriptive (IS): he is making statements of fact, like saying “some people in the world are rich”
prescriptive (OUGHT): he is making value judgements, like saying “the rich ought to give money to the poor”
Mach uses words like “ought” “should” “must” “it is necessary to”, which all seem to express value judgements (prescriptive). but it is possible to have a sentence that uses those after a conditional or “if” clause and be descriptive
What is the distinction between virtue and fortune (mach)? How are they important for the success of the prince?
virtue: what is in your control - your own strength and capabilities
fortune: what is out of your control
Mach. prefers virtue and is all about maximizing things you can control. So he tells the prince to basically try to make everything a part of your “virtue” and beat down fortune.
What does it mean to “lay foundations”? Why is this important?
laying foundations: working to put the conditions in place that will ensure your future power.
this is important because that’s all Mach. wants to do (esp. to beat fortune)
What is the distinction between the “effectual truth” and the “imagination of a thing”? How does this distinction relate to Machiavelli’s critique of other political philosophers?
effectual truth: the actual effect political actions have in reality (what works is what is true)
imagination: the unrealistic fantasy of what politics should be like
Mach thinks that you should only follow the effectual truth. He says “Its impossible to succeed politically if you insist on following the moral ideal”
How does Machiavelli use the word “necessity”? What does this have to do with the prince doing evil / not being good?
He uses the word necessity to mean anything you have to do to succeed. This includes doing things that are bad because they are “excused” by the fact that you will succeed if you do them
Why is the distinction between “having” and “appearing to have” moral qualities important?
Mach. says that appearing to have moral qualities is necessary but actually having said qualities is not and can actually harm your success
Is it better to be loved or to be feared? What does this have to do with Machiavelli’s use of the word “reputation”?
Mach: fear is more reliable in getting people to do what you want them to do.
reputation = how others view the prince, a prince has a great reputation if he is feared and respected
What are the traits of the fox and the lion?
fox: smart, clever - use cleverness to outwit one’s enemies
lion: feared, strong - use force to overpower one’s enemies
What is greatness for Machiavelli?
greatness = success in winning and keeping power + glory
it means you have had to overcome challenges to get to where you are.
What are the characteristics of a prudent prince?
prudence = the ability to make good decisions
sometimes have to choose the lesser evil
recognizes opportunities and knows how to seize them
plans ahead and anticipates future problems
read the signs of the times and adapts accordingly
What are the two ways of relating to fortune?
cautiously - art / craftiness, patience
impetuousity - bold, impulsive, violence, impatience
define principality
an area that is ruled over
what is the “mirror of princes”
the genre of book that The Prince is under - handbooks or guides for a prince to rule well
define "Realpolitik”
politics based on the reality of what is possible rather than on ideals that are impossible to realize
What is Boethius’ initial state? Why is he in this state?
he feels sorry for himself and composes poetry that expresses his self pity. he is in this state because he is waiting to be executed
How is The Consolation of Philosophy an extended allegory?
it is a complex metaphor (allegory) using dialogue, but mixed with biography
How does Lady Philosophy diagnose what is wrong with Boethius? What conclusion does she come to?
She diagnoses him by asking him questions. She comes to the conclusion that Boethius has forgotten his true nature and she will heal him by giving him medicines (philosophy) gradually increasing in strength
Why can fortune never provide true happiness? (Book 2)
Because true happiness is something that is in your own control, and fortune is the opposite of that
How does Lady Philosophy define true happiness? (Book 3)
“a good which once obtained leaves nothing left to be desired”
What are the false paths to happiness? Why can’t they provide perfect happiness?
wealth
honor / prestige
rule
glory / fame
pleasure
each of these leaves something more to be desired (Hedonic Treadmill)
Where is the location of perfect happiness?
God
Why does the fortune of human beings look random to us?
Because we have a limited perspective and can’t predict it
How does Lady Philosophy distinguish “providence” and “fate”?
Providence: the eternal, unchanging plan for all things enfolded in the divine mind (the idea / vision of a painting in an artists mind)
Fate: the unfolding of god’s plan in time (the painting as the artist paints it)
What is eternity? How is being “eternal” different from being “perpetual”?
eternal - to be outside the flow of time and to see all moments in time simultaneously
perpetual - moves along the timeline
What do the divine attributes (omnipotence, omniscience, omnibenevolence) mean?
omnipotence - all powerful
omniscience - all knowing
omnibenevolence - all good
Why does Leibniz say that this is the best of all possible worlds?
denies that god would want to prevent all evil
god doesn’t want evil things to happen when considered in isolation
but god doesn’t choose to create things one-by-one, we are all connected
because god is all powerful and all knowing and all good, there is an infinite # of possible worlds so we must be in the best one because god is all good
define “equanimity”?
equinamity: evenness of mind, someone would be in a perfect state of calmness and contentedness no matter what fortune they were experiencing
what is “the privation of the good”? and how is it relevant?
evil = the privation of the good, lady p says that evil is not real, it is just the lack of something good / the absence of something that should be there
EX: sickness = the absence of health, poverty = the absence of wealth, death = the absence of life, imperfection = the absense of perfection
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