PSYC 241 exam

Developmental Concepts and Issues

* What is lifespan human development?
* The ways in which people __grow, change, and stay the same__ throughout their lives, from __conception to death.__ 

Goals: 


1. Description


1. Aggression in children
2. Explanation


1. They watch aggressive TV shows
3. Prediction


1. If children observe aggression, then they will emulate aggression
4. Intervention


1. Take away the aggressive shows

**What are the 3 Domains of Development?**

Physical, cognitive, socioemotional

physical domain

* **how the brain changes, how the body grows (height weight)**

cognitive domain

 intelligence, language, problem-solving skills, attention

socioemotional domain

* **changes in relationships, self-concept, emotions, and personality**

phases of life

conceptions of age

chronological, biological, psychological, social

chronological age

number of years since birth

biological age

in terms of biological health

psychological age

in terms of person’s adaptive capabilities (coping, choices)

social age

in terms of society’s age expectations. maturity of a person to fulfil the norms and expectations associated with particular social roles

human life span

the longest that a human being can live

\-122 years

human life expectency

how long a person is expected to live

age-graded normative influences

**Events** that shape attitudes of a historical **generation**

* historical generation
* cohort

historical generation

group that experiences an event at a formative time

cohort

a group that is born around the same time

Non-normative influences

* **Unusual events that have a major impact on an individual’s life**
* Typical events (everyone experiences) at **atypical times**
* childbirth during a war

atypical events

* Losing a parent as a child

**Key Principles of the LIfespan Approach**

* Key principles developed by Baltes and other faculty here at WVU
* Research examines changes from conception old-old age
* investigates patterns of stability and change across the lifespan

**Development is Multidimensional**

Physcial development, cognitive development, socioemotional development

physical development

body maturation and growth

cognitive development

maturation of thought processes and the tools that we use **to obtain knowledge, become aware of the world around us, and solve problems**

socioemotional development

changes in personality, emotions, view of oneself, social skills, and interpersonal relationships with parents and friends

development is multidirectional

\-gears and losses in development

Developmental **plasticity**

development is Plastic

* Many abilities can improve with training or practice
* Researchers examine
* Which traits are modifiable? Agreeableness?
* Are traits and abilities more or less plastic at certain ages? Openness to experience?
* What limits are there to plasticity?

**Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary**

* Researchers from many disciplines conduct research relevant to understanding human development

**Development is Influenced by Multiple Contexts**

* Context: Where and when a person develops
* The physical and social environment
* Neighborhood
* Country
* Culture
* Historical time period
* Values, customs, and ideals

**Basic Issues in Lifespan Human Developments**

* Development is characterized by __continuous__ (changes that occur slowly and gradually, and over a period of time) and __discontinuous__ (a rapid or abrupt change)
* individuals are active in development
* Individuals interact with and __influence__ the world around them
* Individuals __create__ the experiences that lead to developmental change
* Example:
* Children learning language frequently ask the question “Why?” adults answer their questions, furthering their knowledge

continuous change

gradual development; development of cancer, stage 1, 2, 3..

discontinuous change

abrupt development; puberty

Nature

* Developmental change is caused by inborn genetic endowments or heredity, maturational processes, and evolution

nurture

* Individuals are molded by the physical and social environment in which they are raised, including the home, school, workplace, neighborhood, and society

Theory

way of organizing a set of observations a facts into a comprehensive explanation of how something

hypothesis

proposed explanations for a given phenomenon that can be tested by research

meta-theory/worldviews

paradigm

* schematic model to represent phenomena, a way of looking at things

mechanism

passive

* john locke: '“tabula rasa”: children are blank slates on which society writes on
* individuals are reactive, machinelike
* all behavior is result of external causes
* focus is on quantitative change (focus on frequency rather than kinds of responses
* like a lamb

organismic

* active development
* impetus for change
* children set their own development in motion
* people initiate events, don’t just react
* development is stage like
* focus is on qualitative change

Bi-directional influences on development

* current developmental psychology acknowledges that environmental influences are bi-directional
* people’s actions << >> environment
* babies w/ a cheerful disposition → positive feedback from adults → social growth and continued cheerful behavior

Psychosexual

Freud: behavior is driven by unconscious impulses that’re outside our awareness

psychosexual stages

unconscious drives are focused on different parts

Psychosexual contributions

focus on childhood, family relationships, and emotional development

Psychosexual criticisms

not empirical, didn’t actually study children, too focused on sexual motivations

Psychosocial

(Erikson)

* the social world, society, and culture shape development
* 8 stages of psychosocial development

Psychosocial Contributions

first lifespan theory, positive view

Psychosocial criticisms

not empircal

behavior learning theories

study of behavior that can be observed; all behavior is influenced by the physical and social environment; encompasses classical and operant conditioning

classical conditioning

a person or animal learns to associate certain stimuli w/ physiological responses

operant conditioning

(skinner) behavior that is rewarded will be more likely to recur, behavior that is punished will less likely occur

positive reinforcement

adding a reward

negative reinforcement

removing something aversive (if advil removes headache → more likely to take it again)

positive punishment

adding something aversive (getting critized)

negative punishment

removing something pleasant (children lose recess for talking inclass)

social learning theeory

(Bandura) peoples thoughts & feelings influence their behavior

observational learning

people learn by watching others

Contributions of Behavior/Learning Theories

* empirical evidence
* utility of reciprocal determinism & observational learning explaining development

Criticisms of Behavior/Learning Theories

development psychologists often disgrace w/ the view that organisms are passive in their development

Cognitive Developmental Theory

(Piaget) children & adults are active explorers of their own worlds

contributions: focused on distinct ways infants and children think

schemas

concepts, ideas or ways of interacting w/ the world

assimilation

incorporate new experiences into existing schemata

* Jack is a good boy, but one day he accidently shit all over the floor. You know that he is a good boy but, he did shit all over the floor

accomodation

modifying existing schemata to fit new experience

information processing theory

studies the steps in cognition - encoding, storing info

* contributions: empirical, predicts behavior well
* criticisms: computer model is too simplistic, lab-based studies may lack realism

role of maturation

changes in brain and nervous system

role of experiences

learning from interacting w/ the world development is continuous

Sociocultural Theory

(Vygotsky) emphasized the importance of culture in development

* contributions: Emphasized the role of culture in development
* criticisms: neglects genetics and minimizes the role of the individual

zone of proximal development

the gap between what the child can do alone and with assistance

Scaffolding

more skilled individuals guide children to acquire knowledge

Bioecological Systems Theory

Microsystem, Mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

Microsystem

immediate social and physical environment

i.e. american culture

Mesosystem

the interactions between microsystems

i.e. family

Exosystem

settings that are not directly experienced by the child but still

i.e. class

Macrosystem

greater sociocultural contexts

Chronosystem

time as a context, when events happen

Ethological Theory

(Bowlby) biologically preprogrammed behaviors the study of the evolutionary basis of behavior & its survival value

Evolutionary developmental theory

* influence of contexual factors
* genetic factors w/ the physical/social
* environment to influence development
* studying how people change throughout lifetime by using principles of evolution

Naturalistic observation

* observing and data collecting in real world setting
* challenge: avoiding participant reactivity, creating operation definition of key behaviors

Structured Observation

observation of behavior in a controlled environment

Surveys/questionnaires

* sets of questions
* occurs in-person, over phone or online
* less costly, large data sets

Structured and semi-structured

* less flexible, standard set of questions, private sensitive information
* sensitive information can be anonymous, open to response sets, wanting to look good
* open ended interviews

physiological measures

* body responses are an important source of information
* physiological indicators of psychological phenomenon
* it’s harder to fake physiological responses

Case Study

* indepth examination
* info from many sources
* source of hypothesis
* provides a rich description of person’s life and influences on their development

Correlational Research

examines relationship between 2 or more variables

Positive Correlation

one variable increases the other

Negative Correlation

one variable increase, the other decreases

Cross sectional Research Design

* comparing groups of people at different ages (cohort)
* data collected at onetime
* indicates age differences but not age changes

Advantages of Cross sectional

efficient, allows comparisons between age groups

Disadvantages of Cross Sectional

confounding variable: cohort influences

Longitudinal Research Design

Onetime group of participants is studying at many points intime

Advantages of Longitudinal

research provides info about age

disadvantages of of Longitudinal

* studies only one cohort
* not possible to tell if changes are age related changes or changes that unique to the study

Sequential Research Design

* designed to assess impact of age & cohort
* combines the best features of cross-sectional and longitudinal research by assessing multiple cohorts overtime

fertilization

An egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell

zygote

One-celled organism, resulting from fertilization- first 2 weeks

gametes

sex cells- ovum & sperm = 23 chromosomes

follicle

small sac in female ovary where ovum is contained

ovulation

rupture of mature follicle & release of ovum

cilia

tiny hairs in fallopian tubes that move ovum

cervix

opening of uterus

chromosomes

coils of DNA that carries genes

meiosis

Eggs and Sperm are formed, each only has 1/2 of the genetic material of the parent cell

mitosis

two cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell