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Dominant form of government during the Later Middle Ages

Monarchy

Why was monarchy dominant in the Later Middle Ages?

Based on the idea that God gave kings their authority; coronation symbolized divine approval.

Social rankings of the 14th and 15th centuries

Emperors → Kings → Nobility (archduke

Where was serfdom declining and where did it continue?

Declined in Western Europe; continued in Eastern Europe (except Russia).

Hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church

Pope → Cardinals → Archbishops → Bishops → Priests → Laypeople

Teachings of the late medieval Roman Catholic Church – Salvation

Both faith and good works necessary for salvation.

Teachings of the late medieval Roman Catholic Church – Revelation

Scripture

Teachings of the late medieval Roman Catholic Church – Authority

God’s authority descends through the Pope.

Teachings of the late medieval Roman Catholic Church – Sacraments

7 Sacraments: baptism

Who could administer sacraments?

Only clergy.

What was the 14th century characterized by?

Plague

The Great Papal Schism

Period of multiple popes fighting for authority; ended by the Council of Constance (1417).

What practice emerged after the Great Schism that later triggered the Reformation?

Sale of indulgences.

What was universalism?

The idea that all of Europe was one large Christian community.

What caused the breakdown of universalism?

Church corruption

Fall of Constantinople (1453) – who conquered it and what was the result?

Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II; renamed Istanbul and ended the Byzantine Empire.

What effect did the fall of Constantinople have on scholarship?

Greek scholars fled West

Rediscovery of antiquity led to increased study of which philosopher?

Plato.

Most serious problem for reformers of the Church

Sale of indulgences – seen as corrupt and false assurance of salvation.

Conciliarists – what did they believe?

That the Church should be governed by a council representing all believers

John Wycliffe – who was he?

English reformer; challenged papal authority and questioned the seven sacraments (accepted only three).

John Wycliffe – key beliefs

Bible should be accessible to everyone; questioned papal power.

Result of reform movements in 14th–15th centuries

None succeeded.

Where did the Renaissance begin and what does it mean?

Began in Italy; means “rebirth.”

What ideas did the Renaissance emphasize?

Classical learning

Five major Italian city-states and what they were known for

Rome – legacy of ancient empire; Venice – commerce & naval power; Florence – Medici family

Focus of “new monarchs” in the late 15th century

Acquisition and expansion of power.

Charles the Bold of Burgundy – goal

Create a new kingdom between France and Germany; died before achieving it.

Charles VIII of France – what did he seek and cause?

Sought crown of Naples; ignited the Italian Wars.

Henry VII – ruled which countries?

England and Ireland.

James IV – ruled where and allied with whom?

King of Scotland; ally to France

Ivan III – significance

First ruler of all Muscovy (Russia).

King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary – accomplishments

Created Bibliotheca Corvina

Italian Wars – fought between which countries?

France (Valois) and Spain/Holy Roman Empire (Habsburgs).

Most corrupt pope ever

Pope Alexander VI.

Baldassare Castiglione – what did he write?

The Book of the Courtier

Niccolò Machiavelli – what did he write and teach?

The Prince; emphasized power and political realism; goal to unite Italy.

What event led to Luther’s break with the Church?

Sale of indulgences in the Holy Roman Empire.

Luther’s key question

“How can I be saved?” – Answer: by faith alone.

Which sacraments did Luther accept?

Baptism and communion.

Priesthood of all believers – meaning

All Christians are equal before God; no need for a priestly hierarchy.

Peace of Augsburg (1555) – two provisions

Recognized Lutheranism as legal in Germany; each ruler could choose their state’s religion (“cujus regio

Peasants’ Revolt (1524–1525) – who vs. who?

Peasants vs. local lords; Luther opposed the revolt.

Ulrich Zwingli – who was he?

Swiss reformer; believed in predestination and rejected Catholic rituals.

How did Zwingli’s beliefs differ from Luther’s?

Disagreed on communion: Zwingli saw it as symbolic; Luther believed Christ was truly present.

What movement spun off from Zwinglianism?

The Anabaptists.

Anabaptists – beliefs

Advocated adult baptism and rebaptism for those baptized as children.

Causes of the English Reformation

Antipapal tradition

King Henry VIII – title and beliefs

Devout Catholic; named “Defender of the Faith.”

Why did Henry VIII want a divorce from Catherine of Aragon?

She did not produce a male heir.

Who replaced Cardinal Woolsey and what did he do?

Thomas Cromwell; claimed the Pope had no authority in England to secure the divorce.

How did Calvin differ from Luther?

Calvin emphasized predestination and God’s absolute sovereignty.

Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion – central idea

Majesty and sovereignty of God.

Calvin’s doctrine of predestination

God already decided who will be saved or damned.

Calvin’s Ecclesiastical Ordinances

Handbook for building a Christian church and society.

City modeled after Calvin’s Protestant ideals

Geneva

How did Geneva function under Calvin?

Strict moral discipline; penalties for blasphemy and immorality.

Contributions to Catholic strength in mid-16th century

Mysticism

Council of Trent – purpose

Reform corruption; reaffirm Catholic teachings.

Purpose of the Index

Official list of prohibited books containing heresy.

Ignatius Loyola – who and what did he found?

Spanish reformer; founded the Jesuits.

Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises – emphasis

Free will

Pope Paul III – known for

First great reforming pope of the Catholic Reformation.

Pope Julius III – contribution

Called the second session of the Council of Trent.

Pope Paul IV – beliefs

Disliked Protestants; suspicious of reformers within the Church.

Why could Luther defy the Church and HRE?

They were distracted by wars with France

The Schmalkaldic League

Alliance of Lutheran princes supporting reform.

Philip II of Spain – first marriage

Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary) of England.

After Mary Tudor’s death

who did Philip propose to?

Who did Philip II ultimately marry?

Elizabeth of Valois (daughter of Henri II of France).

What happened at Philip’s second wedding?

King Henri II was fatally injured in a jousting accident.

Who ruled France after Henri II’s death?

His sons Francis II

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

Paris riot where Huguenot leaders were killed; sparked French Wars of Religion.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Granted toleration to French Huguenots.

Philip II’s government

Absolutist monarchy; ruled by divine right; did not take orders from the Pope.

Philip II’s principal early enemy

The Ottoman Turks.

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

Spain’s naval victory over the Turks; established Spanish dominance at sea.

Mary

Queen of Scots – first husband

Mary’s second husband

Lord Darnley; they had a son

What led Mary to flee to England?

Darnley’s murder and suspicion she was involved with her next husband

Why was Mary executed?

For plotting to overthrow and assassinate Elizabeth I.

Why didn’t Philip II invade while Mary was alive?

He disliked the Guise family she was related to; invaded only after her death.

Division of the Netherlands

North: Dutch Protestants (Holland); South: French-speaking Catholics (Belgium).

Who governed the Netherlands for Philip II?

His half-sister Margaret of Parma and Cardinal de Granvelle.

Who led the Dutch Revolt?

William of Orange (William the Silent).

What was significant about William of Orange’s death?

First major leader assassinated with a handgun.