unit 2: hinduism

common religion?

3rd most practiced religion in the world (following christianity and islam); over 3 billion hindu practitioners worldwide

founder and sacred text?

no founder and no sole sacred text yet there exist many texts with a variety of interpretations & study of texts is not required to be a good hindu

choice in Hindu practice?

lots! long form meditation for enlightenment vs quick daily devotion - it is okay to blend other religious ideas/practices with hindu

india: (4)

• isolated diamond shape

• climate: warm allows outdoor living

• many rivers/streams; ganges (large) dependable enabled civilization to flourish

• hinduism = major religion

hinduism broad facts: (4)

• no founder

• no strong organizational structure

• no creed to define/stabilize beliefs

• unites the worship of many gods with a belief in a single divine reality (family of beliefs)

vedas: (4)

ancient scriptures of india - give a great deal of information about gods/early worship during the vedic period (2000-500BCE)

• earliest sacred books of hinduism

• originally oral form - then written

• name = knowledge/sacred lore

early vedic religion: (4)

• complex society (drainage/seweage, coins, brick homes, written texts)

• religion consisted of worship of mostly male gods who controlled nature

• worship = outdoor fire alters; offerings of milk/ghee/grains & animals

• sacred chants by priest memory (essential in ceremony), from father to son inherited (chants in writing make up the vedas)

dyaus pitr:

shining father - father of the vedic gods

god indra:

god of storm and war in vedic religion

god agni:

god of fire (igni = ignites) in vedic religion

goddess ushas:

god of dawn/renewal in vedic religion

god rudra:

god of wind in vedic religion

god varuna:

god of the sky, justice and water in vedic religion

god vishnu:

god of cosmic order in vedic religion

god surya:

major sun god in vedic religion

god soma:

caused altered states of mind/to expand consciousness, worked through ritual drink possibly made from psychedelic mushrooms in vedic religion

god yama:

god of the afterlife in vedic religion

vedas: 4 basic sacred text collections

1. rig veda

2. yajur veda

3. sama veda

4. atharva veda

rig veda:

hymm knowledge, chants to aryan gods, most important of the vedas - containing an account of the origin of the universe: emerged from the division and cosmic sacrifice of a primeval super person purusha

yajur veda:

ceremonial knowledge, recitation matter for sacrifice

sama veda:

chant knowledge, musical elaborations of vedic chants

atharva veda:

knowledge from (the teacher) atharva, practical prayers and charms

later vedic materials:

brahmanas & aranyakas - added by later generations

brahamanas:

named for priests who would use them, gives details about proper time/place for ceremonies, preparation of ground/ritual objects and purification rites

aranyakas:

forest books - allowed rituals to be understood and practiced in nonliteral, symbolic ways by men who had left society to live in the forests

axis age:

indian civilization experienced widespread/important changes ~500 BCE; heavy interest in techniques to alter consciousness - long sitting meditation, deep breathing, fasting, sexual abstinence, long periods of silence, no sleep, psychedelic plants, living in dark caves, etc.

upanishads: (4)

• comprise ~100 written works that record insight into external/internal reality

• name - sitting near; a master

• primary concept - with spiritual discipline & meditation anyone can experience spiritual reality

• written in dialogue as prose (earlier) and poem (later forms)

6 important concepts of the upanishads:

• brahman

• atman

• maya

• karma

• samsara

• moksha

brahman:

from vedic scripts - expanded to mean a divine reality at the heart of things in the upanishads, god who appears in forms infinite and beyond time and space

• experience of the sacred within nature & the external universe

sat:

reality itself

chit:

pure consciousness

ananda:

bliss

atman:

term related to brahman - of equal importance, translated as self or soul/deepest self, when experienced fully is identical in to brahman, divine, holy, timeless

• the experience of the sacred within oneself

maya:

translated to illusion, contains both meanings of magic & matter - recognizing that nature is maya but that god is the ruler of maya - a force that creates the illusion that the world is real, even though it is not, a veil that conceals the true nature of the world and ourselves

karma:

what determines the direction of one’s rebirth or reincarnation, term means ‘to do’ implying moral consequences are carried out in every action

• good karma - higher rebirth

• bad karma - rebirth in lower more painful forms

samsara:

term refers to the wheel of life, circle of constant rebirth, everyday world full of change, as well as the struggle of suffering - belief that an individual is constantly being reborn, having come from different earlier forms and going on to emerge in new forms in the future

moksha:

term meaning freedom or liberation, ‘to be released’ - in upanishads it is the ultimate human goal to get beyond egotistic responses (anger/resentment) that limit the individual - as one becomes more free you look at life less selfishly/egotistically

• liberation from rebirth

jiva:

individual soul that makes us unique or simply a living being

bhagavad gita: (4)

• song of the divine one (part of long poem mahabharata)

• themes from upanishads but also strikes a balance between mysticism and practical needs of everyday life

• written in dialogue between prince arjuna and his advisor krishna

• arjuna must follow not merely his desires/fears/hopes but must simply do what is right - krishna advises him to fight to protect both his throne and the structure of society/caste system (to fight is his duty)

caste system:

a division of society into social classes that are created by birth or occupation, the prevalent social system of hinduism (reinforced in the bhagavad gita) - dissuades members of different castes from intermarrying remaining strongest in rural areas and more conservative southern india

castes:

term commonly used to describe social classes subdivided into hundreds of subcastes - in india there are 5 main social classes/castes

5 main social classes/castes:

• brahmin - the priest

• kshatriya - the warrior-noble

• vaishya - the merchant

• shudra - the peasant

• dalit - the untouchable

brahmin: the priest

traditionally performs vedic rituals and also acts as a counsellor

kshatriya: the warrior-noble

has the role of protecting society, this is the traditional caste of the aristocracy

vaishya: the merchant

class includes landowners, moneylenders, some artisans

twice born:

males of the upper 3 castes (brahmin - priest, kshatriya - warrior noble, vaishya - merchant) receive a sacred cord during a youth ceremony after being labeled as twice born

shudra: the peasant

does manual labour and is expected to serve the higher castes, the origin of this caste may go back to the subjection of native people who were forced to do the work of servants - peasants are called once born

dalit: the untouchable

traditionally does the dirtiest work - cleaning toilets, street sweeping, collecting animal carcasses, tanning hides - this class’s low status prompted gandhi to promote another name, harijan (children of god) and he urged their inclusion in regular society - where present day india has laws to help overcome discrimination against dalits

the stages of life:

include student (brahmacharin), householder (grihastha), retiree (vanaprastha), and renunciate (sannyasin) - traditional hinduism holds that each stage of life also has its proper way of being lived

student: brahmacharin

spent laying a religious foundation for life, young persons between ages of 8-20, studies religious works where celibacy is necessary to training

householder: grihastha

marriage-traditionally, arranged by the parents occurs at age 20, the person fulfills the demands of society by raising children

retiree: vanaprastha

when grandchildren arrive, individual may retire from ordinary life to spend time on religious matters - ancient ideal was to live in the forest away from society, in reality retirees often continue to live with children/relatives but may eat separately and spend time on religious pursuits with friends

renunciate: sannyasin

only appropriate to enter this stage after retirement and not everyone has to (optional) - living entirely free from society, entire world is home now, men may leave wives although they must ensure their support, celibacy is expected and represented through an organe robe - sannyasin is beyond the caste system, they may remain constant travellers making pilgrimage to sacred sites or settle in ashram (religious community) or live in a cave (purpose of this life iz to hasten mystical insight, free oneself of attachments and end rebirth to attain moksha)

the goals of life:

hinduism also exhibits respect for more worldly goals: in ascending order - pleasure (kama) then economic security/power (artha) then finally social/religious duty (dharma); highest of all life goals is still moksha (complete freedom)

yogas:

methods which can be used to help individuals live spiritually - word means union, related to the word join and is a way for people to perfect their union with the divine - individuals caste/personality type will determine the appropriate yoga

the 6 types of yoga:

• jhana yoga

• karma yoga

• bhakti yoga

• raja yoga

• hatha yoga

• kundalini yoga

jhana yoga: (4)

• knowledge yoga

• brings insight into one’s divine nature by studying the upanishads + bhagavad gita and by learning from teachers who have attained insight

• appropriate for priests/intellectuals

• highly refined by the school of vedanta (vedic school of philosophy) - shankara (old famous leader) emphasized monism, the oneness of everything

karma yoga: (3)

• action yoga

• proposes that all useful work, if done unselfishly can be a way to perfection

• deeds performed without a desire for reward are at the heart of karma yoga

bhakti yoga: (3)

• devotion yoga

• can involve various expressions of devotion; commonly chants, songs, food offerings, anointing statues - may also extend to acts of devotion to ones guru (spiritual teacher), parents, spouse

• uses the purifying power of love to promote devotion to a god or saint

raja yoga: (4)

• royal yoga

• promotes meditation, sitting quietly, turning inward, calming the mind

• mantras - words or brief phrases are often recited with each breath to help clear the mind of thought

• many techniques of meditation exist and are called sadhanas (practices)

om:

sometimes called the sound of creation

hatha yoga: (5)

• force yoga

• physical exercises (yoga yoga)

• developed to help make long meditation periods easier

• mostly involves stretching, balancing and breathing exercises

• many schools of hatha yoga often named after their founders (ex: ashtanga - bases on set sequences of postures/breathing)

kundalini yoga: (5)

• combines elements of raja yoga and hatha yoga

• teaches that there are 7 psychic centres = chakras (wheels) thought to exist along the spinal column one above the other

• meditation + physical exercises help meditators to lift spiritual energy (kundalini - coiled serpent) from one chakra to the next

• each chakra gateway passed brings increased joy/insight

• at topmost 7th chakra - practitioners experience profound bliss = appears as a lotus flower

yogas can be considered as…

any systematic set of techniques that leads to greater spirituality

yoga sutras 8 steps necessary for perfection of meditation:

• self control (yama)

• observance (niyama)

• posture (asana)

• breath control (pranayama)

• restraint (pratyahara)

• steadying of the mind (dharana)

• meditation (dhyana)

• samadhi

self control (yama):

fundamental reorientation of the personality away from selfishness - practicing ahimsa (not hurting living beings), exhibiting sexual restraint, shunning greed, refusing to steal and embracing truthfulness

observance (niyama):

regular practice of the 5 preceding virtuous pursuits (cleanliness, contentment, self-discipline, self-study, devotion)

posture (asana):

integral aspect of meditation, lotus posture (padmasana), in which the meditator is seated with legs crossed each foot touching the opposite leg

breath control (pranayama):

involves deep, regular breathing, holding breath, breathing in various rhythms

restraint (pratyahara):

helps the meditator tune out external distractions

steadying of the mind (dharana):

teaches meditators to focus on only one object to empty the mind of all else

meditation (dhyana):

occurs when the mind is focused only on the object of concentration

samadhi:

the mental state achieved by deep meditation, where the individual losses the sense of being separate from the rest of the universe

indus valley civilization: (4)

• created and traded their ornate seals - with mesapotamia (archaeological evidence)

• had no weapons and no violence

• 2 main cities; harappa & mohenjo daro

• contained drainage systems and streets

some consider 2 additional vedas past the main four…

these are dhanu (weapons) and ayur (medicine)

vedic peoples: theory 1

aryan migration theory - they who compiled the vedas with indo-european language showing links to this

vedic peoples: theory 2

out of india/indigenous aryan theory - where aryans migrated out of india and influenced language greatly

sanskrit:

the native language to the aryans

initially vedic life was…

nomadic and tribal

gopati:

in early vedic civilization, the protectors of cattle, very highly prestigious position as cattle represented great wealth

the upanishadic or axis age: prof notes (4)

• marks a new era of beliefs/practices

• beliefs/practices remain a part of hinduism today

• shift away from the importance of priests/sacrifice/community

• emphasis instead on meditation and renunciation

why the great shift? (upanishadic age): prof notes (5)

• suffering increased as tribes became cities/kingdoms (disease/starvation accelerated)

• rituals lost efficacy - people didn’t think gods were listening/helping them anymore

• vedic priests created more complex/expensive rituals to get the gods attention

• this just raised priestly status and power while alienating those needing help

• followers began to opt out - rejecting increasingly complex rituals and looked for different religious practices that could help them

looking for answers (upanishadic age): prof notes (3)

• new age of suffering was met with a proliferation of holy men all whom claimed to have answers

• holy men rejected the priests increasingly complex rituals & instead led lives of simplicity, renunciation, meditation to various degrees

• as people looked for answers

new communities (upanishadic age): prof notes (2)

• as people looked for answers, new philosophical communities formed, such ad the depiction of shankara, expounding on advaita vedanta

• these communities no longer looked outward to gods to save them but instead looked inward for their answers to existence - one only had to understand their true nature of existence to understand their suffering and place in the world

impact of the upanishadic age (upanishadic age): prof notes (3)

• in addition to new bodies of philosophical texts, key concepts like brahman and atman remain central to hinduism today

• the importance of renunciation and meditation also continue to be prominent practices and ways of life among holy men and women (sadhus and sadhvis)

• that said the philosophical ideas of this time did not replace the gods and rituals of the vedic age entirely - instead they were viewed in addition/or an alternative to views and practices already in place

the 4 stages of life: the student - prof notes (4)

• the student (one who takes a vow of celibacy while they study religious texts) is a stage traditionally reserved for boys

• girls meanwhile were ‘students’ of the household - learning cooking/cleaning; marriage prep

• girls are also expected to be celibate but not because they are students - but because women/girls are always expected to be celibate except within context of marriage

• therefore historically girls/women were not allowed to learn religious texts/sanskrit

the 4 stages of life: the householder - prof notes (7)

• to be a householder is to be married and have children (requires heterosexuality & ability to have children)

• having children rests on the womens shoulders - they also oversee all household controls (cooking, cleaning, pregnancy (of sons) keeping husband happy)

• men; expected to provide 4 family

• men/women have a duty to society & the gods/goddesses

• they must look after their parents (husbands fam) ensuring family legacy is intact

• responsible for ensuring proper worship of family’s deities (women household shrine offerings & men temple offerings)

• time of hard work, making money and pleasure thru procreation

the 4 stages of life: the retiree - prof notes (4)

• time people refocus on spiritual matters after house-holding

• men - traditionally meant going to a forest or ashram to meditate

• women - follow husbands or stay with eldest son

• time when a couple is meditating more, reading scriptures, while their children are feeding/housing them

the 4 stages of life: the renunciate - prof notes (4)

• most do not enter this stage but remain as retirees

• why? cause this stage requires complete renunciation from all ties to this life (children/grandchildren)

• this life - wandering contemplative life relying on the kindness of strangers for food

• women do not generally renounce because it is viewed as dangerous and unsavoury for women to wander on their lonesome

the goals of life: karma & artha - prof notes

pleasure (karma) and wealth/power (artha) are expected and encouraged during the householding stages of life

the goals of life: dharma - prof notes

dharma (duty) applies to all stages of life given that it is both our social and religious duties

the goals of life: moksha - prof notes

moksha (liberation from rebirth) is ideally supposed to be the goal for all Hindus, thereby if one follows the life stages accordingly they should be well on their path to moksha

4 paths of yoga video: bhakti yoga (3)

• path of devotion - emphasizes the cultivation of a loving/devotional relationship with a chosen deity or divine

• recognizes the path to spiritual awakening is through unwavering devotion/surrender to a higher power

• devotees engage in various acts of worship/prayer/ritual; singing hymns (bhajans), temple visits, chanting mantras, meditating on divine qualities of their deity

4 paths of yoga video: karma yoga (4)

• centred around selfless service and the belief that one can attain spiritual growth by performing their duties without attaching to outcomes

• teaches that actions should be performed as an offering to the divine, without any selfish motives

• practitioners engage in acts of service and charity offering time/skills to help others

• strive to perform their duties with dedication and a sense of detachment from the fruits of their actions

4 paths of yoga video: jnana yoga (4)

• path of knowledge for used on acquiring self-knowledge and realizing the true nature of the self (atman) and ultimate reality (brahman)

• involves deep introspection and intellectual exploration to gain insight into the nature of existence

• practitioners study sacred texts like the upanishads and vedanta and engage in philosophical contemplation and meditation

• question their own identity seeking to understand the distinction between the ego and higher self

4 paths of yoga video: raja yoga (5)

• aims to calm the fluctuations of the mind and achieve a state of inner peace/self-realization

• path of meditation/mental control

• it is often associated with teachings of Patanjali (+ his sutras)

• involves various meditation techniques; concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana), state of deep absorption (samadhi)

• practitioners work on mastering their thoughts, emotions and mental processes through regular meditation and yogic practices

who wrote the yoga sutras?

Patanjali

what is a yantra?

a sacred diagram; used for meditation, worship and ritual

which philosophy foremost represents jnana yoga?

vedanta

om is:

the sound of creation