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Essential Nutrients

Nutrients that the body cannot produce on its own and must be obtained from the diet, such as essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and water.

Phytochemicals

Non-nutrients found in plants that may have positive health effects, like reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer; examples include flavonoids and carotenoids.

Ultra-processed Foods

Foods made mostly from processed ingredients, with minimal whole food components, often found in brightly colored packages and linked to health concerns like obesity, type 2 diabetes, and high blood pressure.

Organic Foods

Foods grown, raised, and harvested with minimal synthetic inputs, without genetic modification, hormones, or unnecessary antibiotics, preserving biodiversity.

Genetically Modified Foods

Foods altered at the DNA level through genetic engineering, including cash crops like corn and soy, with high profit potential and implications for biodiversity.

Nutrient Density

Amount of nutrients in a food compared to a reference amount, with higher nutrient density indicating a healthier choice; nutrient profiling ranks foods based on this concept.

Experimental Studies

Controlled studies like randomized control trials used to establish causality in nutrition research, with experimental and control groups to test the effects of dietary interventions.

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)

Scientifically determined reference values for nutrient requirements, including Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) to inform dietary recommendations.

Adequate Intake (AI)

When there is insufficient scientific data to establish the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), the AI value is used, determined by observing the nutrient intake of healthy individuals without signs of deficiency.

Tolerable Upper Limit (TUL)

The maximum amount of a nutrient that can be consumed without risking toxicity; exceeding this limit increases the likelihood of adverse effects, although not all nutrients have an established upper limit.

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)

The total energy needed to maintain an individual's current size, while the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range provides recommendations for the percentage of energy from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

Canada's Food Guide

A dietary guideline emphasizing a plate model with 50% vegetables and fruits, 25% whole grains, and 25% protein-rich foods, promoting variety, accessibility, cultural relevance, and mindful eating habits.

Food Labels

Information on packaged foods, including the common name, net quantity, producer/distributor details, date marking, ingredients list, and nutrient facts box, with optional nutrient content and health claims, following regulations for consumer awareness.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

A highly corrosive acid with a pH of 2, used to unravel proteins and activate the enzyme pepsin.

Pepsinogen

A proenzyme secreted by stomach cells, converted into the active enzyme pepsin by HCl, which breaks down amino acid chains.

Small intestine

Contains circular folds and villi to increase surface area, with microvilli forming the brush border where digestive enzymes are stored.

Large intestine

Responsible for minimal digestion and absorption, packaging waste for removal, including the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons.

Microbiome

Refers to the non-human genetic material in our bodies due to microorganisms, mainly bacteria, with about 300-500 species living in the large intestine.

Pancreas

A gland with endocrine functions producing insulin and glucagon, and exocrine functions secreting digestive enzymes like protease, lipase, and amylase.

Liver and gallbladder

Liver produces bile for lipid digestion, stored in the gallbladder, while bile salts emulsify lipids to suspend them in a watery environment.

Probiotics

Found in supplements and foods like yogurt, they promote gut health by providing beneficial bacteria.

Ulcers

Open sores along the digestive tract lining, including canker sores in the mouth and peptic ulcers related to H. pylori infection.

Metabolism

Sum of chemical reactions in an organism, involving anabolism (building molecules) and catabolism (breaking down molecules) to produce energy like ATP.

Osmosis

Osmosis is the process where water moves across semi-permeable membranes to even out concentration differences.

Protein function in fluid balance

Proteins help maintain fluid balance by preventing water buildup in the extracellular space.

Hydrolysis reactions

Hydrolysis reactions use water to split larger molecules into smaller ones, like breaking down maltose into glucose.

Water in defense from infection

Water helps in defense by moving infectious agents to lymph where immune cells can act on them for removal.

Water in protection from injury

Water reduces friction and damage from movement, like synovial fluid protecting bones from scraping.

Water in temperature regulation

Sweating cools the body by releasing watery sweat that evaporates, helping to maintain internal temperature.

Water balance mechanisms

Thirst increases when the body lacks water, and the kidneys regulate water levels by deciding what stays in the blood and what is excreted in urine.

Dehydration consequences

Dehydration can lead to kidney damage, seizures, and hypovolemic shock due to the stress it puts on the kidneys and electrolyte imbalances.

Water intoxication

Water intoxication occurs when the body has excessive water relative to electrolytes, leading to hyponatremia and potentially fatal conditions.

Diuretics

Diuretics promote water loss through urination, and substances like caffeine and alcohol act as diuretics, affecting hydration levels.

Unrefined sources of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates consumed in their entire form without any parts of the plant removed, such as whole grain wheat and whole grain oats.

Refined sources of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates with part of the plant, typically the bran and germ layer, removed, leading to lower nutrient density.

Lactose intolerance

Condition caused by insufficient secretion of the brush border enzyme lactase, resulting in the inability to digest lactose and absorb its glucose and galactose components.

Glycemic response

Spike in blood glucose levels following a meal as glucose enters circulation, with lower responses associated with improved insulin sensitivity and decreased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity.

Glycemic index (GI)

Relative ranking of a food's potential to spike blood sugar on a 100-point scale, with low-GI foods scoring 55 or less, mid-GI foods between 56 and 69, and high-GI foods above 70.

Glycemic load (GL)

Assessment of how much blood glucose will spike considering a food's GI and the actual amount of carbohydrate within the food, with low-GL foods scoring less than 10, moderate-GI foods 10–20, and high-GL foods above 20.

Insulin resistance

Condition where cells lose sensitivity to insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels, a hallmark of type 2 diabetes.

Hypoglycemia

Low blood glucose levels causing symptoms like dizziness, hunger, headache, and confusion, with diabec hypoglycemia occurring in individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes who take excess insulin.

Non-nutritive sweeteners (NNSs)

Sugar substitutes with negligible calories and nutrients, much sweeter than sugar, used as alternatives to sugar in foods and beverages.

High-GI diet

Associated with increased cardiovascular risk factors like high blood triglyceride levels due to refined carbohydrates and added sugars.

Soluble fibre

Lowers LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of CVD-related deaths, heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

Dietary fibre

Reduces the risk of developing cancers in the large intestine by diluting cancer-causing agents, lowering their potency.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

Chronic condition causing symptoms like abdominal pain, diarrhea, constipation, gas, and bloating.

FODMAPs

A diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols often recommended for managing IBS symptoms.

Lipids

Hydrophobic molecules like triglycerides, fatty acids, sterols, and phospholipids crucial for cell structure and energy storage.

Triglycerides

Main dietary lipids consisting of a glycerol backbone with three fatty acids attached, essential for energy storage.

Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids

Essential fatty acids that must be consumed from the diet, used to synthesize signaling molecules and eicosanoids with anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory properties.

Cholesterol

A crucial sterol found in animal products, essential for cell membrane structure and hormone synthesis, not considered an essential nutrient.

Lipoproteins

Transport lipids around the body, with chylomicrons transporting lipids from the small intestine to the liver and VLDL and LDL delivering lipids to cells, associated with cardiovascular health.

Fat-soluble vitamins

Vitamins A, D, E, and K that require dietary lipids for absorption and are stored in fat cells.

Cholesterol

A precursor for important signaling molecules like steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D, influencing various body functions.

Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids

Essential fatty acids used to synthesize eicosanoids with roles in blood vessels, inflammation, and brain function.

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

A condition affecting the heart and blood vessels, influenced by lifestyle factors like diet, exercise, and stress management.

Lipid Hypothesis

Suggests a link between dietary lipids, especially saturated fats, and CVD risk, with PUFAs potentially reducing this risk.

Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins, with nine essential amino acids required from the diet for protein synthesis and tissue repair.

Protein Denaturation

Loss of a protein's three-dimensional structure, affecting its function, often initiated during digestion in the stomach.

Protein Digestion

Begins in the mouth with mechanical breakdown and continues in the stomach and small intestine with enzymes breaking down proteins into amino acids.

Protein Functions

Include structural roles like collagen and elastin, transport functions, enzymatic activities, and immune defense mechanisms.

Deamination

The process of removing the nitrogen-containing amine group from amino acids to utilize the remaining structure for energy production.

Ammonia

A toxic byproduct of deamination that is converted into urea and excreted from the body.

Marasmus

A wasting syndrome resulting from inadequate energy intake, including protein, leading to symptoms like low body weight, anemia, and dehydration.

Kwashiorkor

A form of protein malnutrition characterized by a distended abdomen and swollen limbs due to insufficient protein and essential amino acid intake.

Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)

A measure of protein quality calculated by the weight gained by an animal consuming a specific amount of protein.

PDCAAS

Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score, a method to assess protein quality by comparing amino acid content to human requirements, with a maximum score of 1.0.

BCAAs

Branched-Chain Amino Acids, essential amino acids metabolized in muscles, crucial for protein-based tissue repair and found in foods like chicken and yogurt.

Vegetarianism

A dietary choice avoiding animal products, with potential health benefits like lower cholesterol levels and reduced risk of certain diseases.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins that require a lipoprotein transporter for movement in the body, stored in adipose tissue, and can lead to toxicity if consumed in excess.

Riboflavin

A vitamin involved in the conversion of tryptophan to niacin and in maintaining homocysteine levels, found in sources like egg yolks, organ meats, and dairy products.

Niacin

Also known as Vitamin B3, it plays a crucial role in metabolism, particularly in the form of NAD, and is found in animal products like chicken and fish.

Pantothenic Acid

Vitamin B5, essential for the formation of coenzyme A, found in a variety of animal and plant products like beef, chicken, and fortified cereals.

Vitamin B6

A group of vitamers involved in over 100 enzymatic reactions, found in foods like chickpeas, beef liver, and fortified cereals.

Biotin

Vitamin B7, functions as a coenzyme in metabolism and is abundant in foods like beef liver, chicken, and sunflower seeds.

Folate

Vitamin B9, crucial for DNA synthesis and metabolism, found in sources like beef liver, spinach, and fortified cereals.

Vitamin B12

Cobalamin, necessary for DNA synthesis and red blood cell formation, primarily found in animal products like shellfish and beef liver.

Vitamin C

Essential for collagen formation, antioxidant function, iron absorption, and immune support. Found abundantly in fruits and vegetables.

Free Radicals

Reactive molecules with unpaired electrons that can damage cells by stealing electrons. Antioxidants neutralize free radicals by donating electrons.

Scurvy

Vitamin C deficiency disease characterized by fatigue, gum inflammation, impaired collagen formation, and potential hair and teeth loss.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins A, D, E, and K that are stored in fat tissue and absorbed with lipid carriers. Excessive intake can lead to toxicity due to storage in the body.

Vitamin A

Important for vision, gene expression, immune function, and skin health. Found in animal products as preformed vitamin A and in plants as provitamin A.

Vitamin D

Crucial for calcium absorption and bone health. Mainly obtained through sun exposure and found in fatty fish. Deficiency can lead to rickets or osteomalacia.

Vitamin E

Acts as an antioxidant, supporting immune function and cell signaling. Rich sources include vegetable oils and nuts. Deficiency is rare but can occur in individuals with compromised fat absorption.

Vitamin K

Essential for blood clotting by synthesizing prothrombin and fibrin. Found in leafy greens, oils, nuts, and animal products. Deficiency can lead to increased bleeding and hemorrhaging.

Vitamin K functions

Essential for bone mineralization, deficiency can lead to decreased bone density and osteoporosis. It is involved in blood coagulation and can be tested through prothrombin time.

Warfarin

Sold as Coumadin, it is an anticoagulant blocking the vitamin K-dependent coagulation pathway to prevent blood clot formation. Initially used as rat poison.

Vitamin Infused Beverages

Considered natural health products in Canada, they contain water-soluble vitamins and may give a false sense of healthiness to those with poor diets.

Indigenous Lens

Offers a different perspective on minerals, viewing them as living and with spirits, contrasting Western science's definition of inorganic substances.

Minerals

Solid, inorganic substances essential for body functions. Major minerals are needed in higher amounts, while trace minerals are required in smaller quantities.

Bioavailability

Refers to the availability and absorption of minerals from food sources, influenced by plant compounds like phytates, oxalates, tannins, and glucosinolates.

Cofactors

Inorganic metals that bind to enzymes, aiding in their function and improving reaction rates. They are essential for enzymatic processes in the body.

Calcium

Most abundant mineral in the body, crucial for bone health, muscle contraction, and nerve signaling. Deficiency can lead to osteoporosis.

Phosphorus

Second most abundant mineral, vital for cell structure, ATP production, and DNA/RNA formation. Found in animal products and plays a role in bone health.

Sodium

An electrolyte essential for nerve, heart, and muscle function. Regulates fluid balance and is commonly found in processed foods.

DASH Eating Plan

A dietary approach that emphasizes low sodium and calorie intake to reduce the risk of hypertension and manage it effectively.

Potassium

An essential mineral that acts as an electrolyte, mainly found in the intracellular space and plays a role in maintaining fluid balance.

Chloride

A mineral functioning as an electrolyte, essential for the body's electrical activity and fluid balance, commonly sourced from table salt.

Magnesium

A mineral that acts as a cofactor for numerous enzymes, involved in energy metabolism, protein synthesis, and supporting healthy brain development and heart function.

Sulfur

An abundant mineral in the body, crucial for the synthesis of amino acids, protein structure, and the formation of the antioxidant glutathione peroxidase.