AP Psych Semester 1

memory

the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time.

retreival

the process of getting formation out of memory.

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experience.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information.

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of the incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits; processed in the cerebellum

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled for about 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

hippocampus

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapses' firing potential after brief, rapids stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when leaning material for a second time.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

state dependent memory

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

context effects

memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age (~3 years old)

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of old information on new information.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new information on old information.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

deja vu

the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.

insight

a sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contrary evidence.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

sunk cost fallacy

people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

belief bias

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word.

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language predetermines the way we think

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

construct validity

the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring

predictive validity

the extent to which a score on a scale or test accurately predicts scores on some criterion measure

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

split-half reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

stereotype lift

awareness of positive expectations can actually improve performance on tasks

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

crystalized intelligence

one's accumulated acknowledge and verbal skills; tends fo increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

g factor (general intelligence)

according to Spearman, a person's underlying intelligence that influences performance on tests of mental abilities

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in music, computation or drawing

Neuron

nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. the action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction